Good essay cover pages

Boston University Arts Sciences Writing Program. Cover Pages. In his 1923 essay “Ulysses, Order and Myth,” T. S. Eliot predicated that rather than the narrative style of poetry popularized by poets of the essays music, Romantic era, poets of the twentieth-century would instead employ James Joyce’s “mythical method,” a technique characteristic of heavy mythological, historical, and literary allusions used to create a “continuous parallel between contemporaneity and antiquity” (177). Doing so allowed a poem to reach a new universal level of cover, significance regardless of era, much like that of the mythic heroes of Greece and good thesis for martin luther king Medieval Europe. Cover Pages. More importantly, Eliot noted that making use of the mythical method allowed art to be possible in the epistemologically unstable modern world. Indeed, with the development of modernism came dramatic shifts in the aesthetic paradigm for both visual and literary artists; similar to the new aesthetic schools of cubism, futurism, and surrealism inspired by phd dissertation redefinitions of time and good cover space by scientists and philosophers of the twentieth-century, Eliot argued that the mythical method provided poets with a technique to reconcile present ideas with older linear conceptions of narrative poetry. Specifically, according to Eliot, the poet gained a perspective that offered a new way of “controlling, of giving a shape and significance to the panorama of anarchy which is contemporary history” (178).

Many critics, such as Jay Martin, have argued that Eliot’s modernist poem “The Waste Land” correspondingly seeks to order the short essay on a match, chaotic modern world; in particular with its substantial use of historical and literal references, the mythical method offers Eliot a satirical lens to perceive and give new meaning to cover pages the present (65). Critics have also argued, however, that the poem’s repeated allusions to fertility myth represent Eliot’s call for religious revival in Europe. Notably, D. C. Fowler contends that the poem’s ending represents “restoration” of the Fisher King’s waste land; to him, the Indian words given at the end of the poem provide the “abracadabra element . . . Essay Personal Characteristics. just as the essay pages, hero of the Grail romances was expected to piracy speak the proper words before the wounded king and his land could be restored, so [does] the protagonist in ‘The Waste Land’ provide an incantation” (36). The negativism of the opening lines is therefore supplanted by the poem’s closing line. However, reading “What the Thunder Said” as Eliot’s resolution to the problems dramatized earlier in essay cover, the poem disregards the irony of the short essay on a match, poem’s last movement. Namely, the thunder does not speak and the Christian myths alluded to throughout the good essay pages, poem are not fulfilled—the waste land instead remains barren and spiritually arid as the Sanskrit lines in place of Christian prayer at the end of the good thesis for martin luther king, poem more importantly represent a recapitulation of the poem’s opening multilingual epigraph than a signal of conclusion. Cover Pages. If “The Waste Land” represents Eliot’s attempt to ib english part 1 essay transcend the limitations of traditional poetic technique (linear narration) and instead write with the dominating twentieth-century ideas of relativity, randomness, and good essay cover uncertainty in mind, perhaps his intent is to depict a world not only barren of legal study, traditional epistemology but also of Christian morality and religious certainty. With this interpretation in mind, Eliot’s world consequently offers an alternative morality that is neither bound by allegiance to a particular god nor rewarded by good faith; in this sense, the essay, waste land is a world beyond good and evil.

The allusion to the Roman oracle Sibyl in the opening of “The Waste Land” demonstrates Eliot’s proclivity throughout the poem for irony, contradiction, and paradox. Essay Describe Personal Characteristics. By depicting Sibyl as hanging in good pages, a jar and “wishing to die,” Eliot is 1 essay, directly drawing attention to the limitations of the oracle’s physical perception; ironically, she seems not to have been able to essay foretell her own fate as she is now physically trapped and subject to the same chaotic world as those who come and ask her for foresight and guidance. Although the decision to include a bilingual epigraph to begin the poem might seem unnecessarily academic, Eliot’s choice is clearly meticulous when considering the technique used throughout “The Burial of the Dead.” Much like the Roman oracle responding in Greek to questions posed in Latin, the about music, poem’s first movement is written with a motive to unify ostensibly incompatible worlds: those of past, present and future. The result is a disregard for time and a particular emphasis on place; each line represents a different event as Eliot arbitrarily manipulates mythic and historical references. April, rather than being a month associated with birth and rejuvenation, is instead cast as “the cruelest month,” an inversion of the original opening lines of The Canterbury Tales; the romantic image of lilacs in the spring is similarly juxtaposed with barren “dull roots” unable to grow out of “stony rubbish” (1-4; 19–20). Yet amidst the first movement’s cluttered “heap of broken images” and seeming lack of sensible direction, there are brief moments of resolve and good cover return to linear narration. Marie’s sled ride, for example, offers a pause from Eliot’s heavy use of direct allusion and historical reference at the poem’s onset. Furthermore, it also marks Eliot’s first use of a single tense for more than one line.

While the poem begins in the present—“April is the cruelest month”—Eliot’s description of the “winter [that] kept us warm” and Marie’s memory is told entirely in the past (5). Part 1 Essay. In the first movement’s last stanza, however, the poem’s mythical and historical allusions compete simultaneously with the poem’s brief moments of narration. While the “Unreal city” is specifically identified as London, the good cover pages, passage contains allusions and direct references to Dante’s Inferno (60). Likewise, Stetson and the speaker are veterans both of Jutland (the famous naval battle of assistance, World War I as indicated in the footnotes) and Mylae, as referenced in good essay pages, the same line. Much like the phenomenon of “double exposure” in photography where two or more individual exposures are superimposed to create a single photograph, the effect is the kaleidoscopic blur of two worlds, articulated in essay personal, defiance of traditional poetic boundaries of good essay cover pages, unified time and place. Although the effect does not produce immediate coherency, it does illustrate the importance of the reader’s perspective in relation to characters in the poem, a theme Eliot reiterates throughout the poem. Rather, the characters in the poem neither interact with one another nor understand their placing in the poem; much like Eliot’s call for the reader to transcend the poetic limitations of time and place, so too does understanding the poem’s integration of past, present, and future require a perspective not limited to the characters in the poem. Understanding “The Waste Land” consequently necessitates a nonlinear conceptualization of essays about, time, an ability to simultaneously parse the meaning of seemingly disordered historical and literary allusions.[1] In the poem’s second movement, “A Game of Chess,” Eliot furthers this challenge to conventional poetic technique and thinking by creating the “cubistic woman,” a collage of references to objects rather than an explicit description of one particular subject.[2] Specifically, while Eliot makes detailed references to the room and its contents, he dismisses anything uniquely characteristic to the woman. Consider the following fragment taken from the opening passage: Reflecting light upon the table as.

The glitter of her jewels rose to meet it, From satin cases poured in essay pages, rich profusion; In vials of ivory and coloured glass. Unstoppered, lurked her strange synthetic perfumes (80–85). The woman is consequently unimportant: although surrounded by symbols of significance, and in particular of beauty and sexuality, she signifies nothing as no symbol refers to anything peculiar to herself; that is, she is not sexual, the about, objects around her are. More subtly, as critics Jewel Brooker and Joseph Bentley carefully note of this particular passage, “nouns . . . things [that] are normally essential [or] thought of as essential, are peripheral and accidental” (103). Rather, Eliot’s emphasis on qualities has the effect of cover, misdirecting the short cricket, reader from the subjects they describe. More important than Eliot’s challenge to traditional poetry are the epistemological implications of Eliot’s technique. Specifically, while in the late nineteenth and early twentieth-centuries scientists and philosophers believed that the subject (the observer) and good cover pages object (the observed entity) were divided and made tangible by good statement for martin luther the mind, it seems Eliot is instead following in the spirit of the twentieth-century paradigm, juxtaposing the idealization and supposed order of subject-object relations with a modern world of randomness, fragmentation, and relativity, a breakdown of the essay cover, assumed continuity of observer and observed. Doing so importantly calls into question the woman’s existence: if the objects do not refer to or interpret her (the role of the subject), she is legal case study, not experienced by the objects in the room[3]; Eliot’s work to keep the woman unidentified and cover faceless is good thesis statement for martin, indeed incontestable when considering that the woman’s reflection in the mirror is good pages, left unacknowledged. One interpretation of the woman, then, is that her significance is only apparent to those whose perspectives transcend the waste land and who have the ability to phd dissertation assistance interpret her inclusion with Eliot’s mythological and historical references (the readers).

Indeed, questions concerning the woman’s reality persist with the entrance of the unidentified visitor; it seems, moreover, that his indifference towards the woman furthers the good essay cover pages, argument that Eliot’s intent is to confound the reader with questions concerning the significance of the woman to the man. Particularly convincing evidence is provided later in the canto as the conversation between the phd dissertation assistance 411, woman and the man shifts to the memory of her visitor: He’s been in the army four years, he wants a good time, And if you don’t give it him, there’s others will, I said. You ought to be ashamed, I said, to look so antique. (And her only thirty-one) (148–151) Lil, the woman, or “proper fool” about good pages, whom the visitor is about music piracy, speaking, is criticized for essay pages, her apparent lack of sexuality and thesis statement for martin king present inability to give her soldier husband a “good time”; she is further expected to good cover pages have “[gotten] herself some teeth” with the statement for martin luther, allowance given to her and “make herself a bit smart” (143–145). Good Essay. Yet unlike Eliot’s earlier ghostlike woman, Lil’s existence in the poem is clearly noted. Among the facts listed in Eliot’s detailed description, Lil is essay describe personal characteristics, thirty-one years of age, has bad teeth, has borne five children, has misspent her allowance and ruined her health with an abortion, and is married to Albert who is disgusted by essay cover pages her appearance. Considering that Lil’s dialogue is written entirely in the British vernacular, it thus seems that Lil’s objectification coupled with Eliot’s earlier de-emphasis of the woman in study, front of the mirror speaks to the crux of the second movement: with Eliot’s numerous references to Eve and Hamlet’s Ophelia in “A Game of Chess,” the poet is good cover, perhaps offering a critique of gender relations throughout history, of “wasted women” subject to the will of men in myth. Indeed, neither woman embodies any particular sexual power to impose on their respected men—it follows that they are further objects to the hero’s subject.

Coupled with earlier allusions to short on a fertility myth and Eliot’s acknowledged importance of good, Weston’s From Ritual to Romance to good thesis statement king the thematic composition of the poem, the importance of good cover, women in the second movement becomes strikingly clear and particularly useful for further interpretation when it is legal, realized that the “waste land” is in mythic terms equivalent to the sexually barren woman.[4] Eliot’s extended metaphor of sexual distance between the men and pages women in “A Game of Chess” and the barrenness of the waste land climaxes in the poem’s third movement, “The Fire Sermon.” Specifically while early water imagery in the canto seems to essay on a cricket match foreshadow the inevitability of rain and the restored fertility of the infertile waste land, Eliot’s ironic juxtaposition of rain with the dehumanization of sexual intercourse in lines 235–56 instead implies that such rejuvenation is not possible. Rather, if the women of the second canto are to be interpreted as metaphorically representative of the barren waste land, the impossibility of sexual fertility represents perpetuated aridity and the impossibility of rain. More specifically, although in lines 215–20 Eliot hints at the man’s apparent lust for essay pages, the woman, the dismissive concluding remarks by the woman of, “Well now that’s done: and I’m glad it’s over,” instead imply the legal case, absence of lust (252). Good Essay Cover Pages. Moreover, the woman described as, “Hardly aware of her departed lover,” illustrates the desensitization and utter indifference toward love making; sexual intercourse, instead of ib english 1 essay, a symbol of good essay cover pages, rejuvenation, birth and characteristics a celebration of essay pages, life, is short match, made as mechanical as the woman’s “automatic hand” (250; 255) and is further made significant when recalling the question of existence posed in the second canto. Such lack of a human soul in “The Fire Sermon” has led many critics to conclude that much of Eliot’s poem satirizes the modern mind and twentieth-century thinking. In particular, Cleanth Brooks has argued that “our contemporary waste land is in large part the result of good cover pages, our scientific attitude—or our complete secularization” (68). Phd Dissertation Assistance. And when considering the third canto’s clearly Christian prayers to “pluckest me out,” Eliot is conceivably calling for an escape from the essay cover pages, hellish waste land through divine intervention; this reference is perhaps a signal of Eliot’s own disillusionment with the essay describe personal, world of paradox, contradiction, irony, and hopelessness that the poem has become, a reference to the importance of religious thinking in the modern world as a basis for existence, ethics, and morality. Yet when considering that many faiths—such as Buddhism (alluded to throughout “The Fire Sermon” and good essay cover pages also the source of the canto’s title) and essay cricket Christianity—consider sexual intercourse and essay cover asceticism as rival modes of achieving divine unity,[5] the closing lines of the third canto suggest interpretation markedly different from Brooks’ work. Rather, prayers to “pluckest me out” of “Burning burning burning burning” are ironically preceded by dominating images of water throughout the canto; references to the Thames River and “music [that] crept by me upon the waters” are certainly not accidental and importantly evidence Eliot’s propensity for irony throughout the poem (257–260). Statement For Martin Luther. And when additionally considering that the poem’s fourth movement, “Death by good cover Water,” does not advocate rebirth from death—the protagonist, Phlebas, merely dies without hope for regeneration or resurrection in the poem’s symbolically shortest canto—the satirical message of the poem’s third movement becomes readily clear. Namely, Phlebas’ insignificant death mocks religion promising salvation or reward after death, both characteristics of the Eastern and Western theologies alluded to throughout “The Fire Sermon.” Placing the third and fourth movements of “The Waste Land” in the context of the entire poem, by deconstructing assumed knowledge of good and evil, Eliot is perhaps suggesting the difficulty of short essay match, existence for humans based on religious dogma.

Specifically, while attacking the question of good essay cover, existence epistemologically in “A Game of Chess,” it seems that in “The Fire Sermon” and “Death by Water” Eliot is acknowledging that the essay personal characteristics, present problem of existence in the modern world is a consequence of good essay, humankind’s religious beliefs, a problem not constrained to a particular gender or time period. The fact that the characters in “The Waste Land” have lost knowledge of good and evil (as derived from religious faith), keeps them from being alive—as critic Stephen Spender perceptively remarks, they remain “eternally dead” (46). This argument is well supported when considering the poem’s final movement, “What the Thunder Said.” In particular, while visions of rain and water are referenced throughout the legal case study, canto[6], Eliot recapitulates the poem’s earlier feel of pessimism and cynicism with the movement’s closing lines. Specifically, although the protagonist is cast in the waste land, sitting upon a shore “with the arid plain behind me,” he is soon transported to good cover the Unreal City—noted clearly by Eliot’s references to London and Dante—and then finally to essays about music the East, presumably India, without hope for his European waste land as the “flash of lighting . . Pages. . Bringing rain,” floods the Ganga River. More subtly, this chaotic shift in geography not only exemplifies the poem’s earlier disregard for unity of time and place, but mocks any notion of narrative finality (394).

Indeed, the Dante reference is not to Dante’s Paradiso, the study, last poem in the Divine Comedy, but to Purgatorio; as noted clearly in the text, the protagonist neither “sets his lands in order” nor ascends to any Christian heaven (426). By deconstructing the dominating intellectual and cultural paradigms of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and in place advocating a world not based on the assumed order of subject-object relations, the certainty of faith, or even a definitive knowledge of one’s existence, Eliot is successful in his employment of the mythic method; “The Waste Land” indeed remains omnipresent, or, as personal friend Ezra Pound (also to whom the poem is dedicated) remarked in essay cover, his review of the poem, “news that stays news” (Raine 96). This significance, however, is somewhat contrived when noting that critics are still unable to essay describe personal agree on a concrete interpretation of the good essay pages, poem. Yet when considering the implications of personal characteristics, Eliot’s aesthetic technique, breaking down the narrative style of poetry set before him and instead challenging the reader to transcend assumed unity of time and place, Eliot is conceivably articulating a world beyond the constraints of essay cover, not only literary technique but more importantly morality and ethics as the phd dissertation 411, Fisher King’s disillusionment and spiritual exhaustion throughout “The Waste Land” perhaps reflects the essay, limitations of religious faith. This interpretation has particularly strong resonance with Nietzsche’s philosophy as explicated in Beyond Good and Evil.

Though written roughly fifteen years apart, both “The Waste Land” and Nietzsche’s work importantly focus on deconstructing past morality and philosophy, in favor of advocating a world of freedom for the adequately fit individual; for Eliot, this amounts to transcending the limitations of past poetry and instead supposing the on a cricket, new Cubistic and cover Futuristic modernist world. Nietzsche’s analysis similarly accuses past philosophers of blindly accepting Judeo-Christian values, therefore resulting in a false interpretation of morality; Nietzsche, rather, does not consider certain virtues and 1 essay vices to be a priori good or evil but instead unproven values reflective of a particular religious narrative, an assumption that importantly weakens an individual’s potential (200–205). His philosophy hence moves into the realm “beyond good and evil” in the sense of good, leaving behind traditional morality—he instead calls for his readers to no longer be ashamed of differences in the face of a supposed morality-for-all. Likewise, by deconstructing conventional poetry and supposed morality, Eliot is phd dissertation assistance, inviting his readers, those strong enough to leave behind requisite assumptions such as linear time and place, to this world. Recalling the visual movements associated with modernism (that is, futurism, cubism, and surrealism) as a graphical representation of the technique used in “The Waste Land,”[7] this philosophical interpretation is perhaps best captured with Casper David Friedrich’s Wanderer above the Mist (1818). Specifically, Eliot is advocating transcending a chaotic modern world and ordering it as the individual sees fit, neither being constrained by traditional philosophy and science nor subscribing to a particular moral narrative. Unlike Eliot’s J. Alfred Prufrock, who fails to seize the day, “The Waste Land” champions individual potential. In this sense, the poem achieves universal significance, a testament indeed to good essay cover pages the legacy of Eliot’s mythical method.

1. Indeed, as will be shown, the poem’s opening epigraph cannot be understood without first reading the ending. Assistance 411. 2. Futurism and Surrealism: as critic Jacob Korg writes on pages, Eliot’s technique, “The Surrealist effect is like that of an image remembered from a dream; it embodies a profound emotional impression, but its meaning remains elusive.” The most important motifs of 411, Surrealist art are paradox and contradiction. Futurist artists sought to depict speed rather than stagnancy in their works and this is reflected throughout much of the nonlinearity and arbitrary use of tense in “The Waste Land” (89–91). 3. An illustrating example of this paradox can be seen in mathematics. In Principia Mathematica , Newton acknowledged that mathematics rested on the manifestation of objects by the subject; numbers could only good essay pages, be identified with a relation, a means to make an abstraction tangible. Consequently, without a subject to interpret significance, and define with a relation, an object has no meaning; two objects correspondingly have no reality in themselves. One possible interpretation of the title, then, is that it symbolizes such epistemological stalemate and inability to reconcile present theory with traditional theories of knowledge and knowing (Brooker and Bentley 64). 4. Examples of fertility myth and the barrenness of the waste land early in essays music, the poem: “breeding/ Lilacs out of the dead land” and “that corpse you planted last year in your garden…will it bloom this year?” (2; 72) 5. A major motivation for asceticism is the brevity of sexual intercourse. Rather, ascetics maintain that a more permanent relationship with God is achieved through traditional prayer, humility, and cover pages sacrifice (Brooker and legal Bentley 124). 6. As in the third movement, rain may be interpreted as a symbol of restoration and rejuvenation. Cover Pages. 7. Consider Duchamp’s Nude Descending a Staircase, No.

2 as a “heap of broken images.” Bentley, Joseph and Jewel Brooker. Reading “The Waste Land”: Modernism and the Limits of Interpretation. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1990. Essay Describe Characteristics. Print. Brooks, Cleanth. “The Waste Land: Critique of Myth.” A Collection of Critical Essays on “The Waste Land.” Ed. Jay Martin. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1968. 59–87. Print.

Duchamp, Marcel. Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2. 1912. Philadelphia Museum of good cover pages, Art. Web. 24 Apr. 2012. http://www.philamuseum.org/collections/permanent/51448.html?mulR=25794|1. Eliot, T. Legal Case. S. “Ulysses, Order and Myth.” Selected Prose of T. S. Eliot. New York: Farror, Straus, Giroux, 1945. 177–179. #8212;. “The Waste Land.” The Norton Anthology of essay cover pages, Modern and Contemporary Poetry.

Ed. Good Thesis Statement King. Jahan Ramazani, Richard Ellman, Robert O#8217;Clair. New York: W.W. Good Pages. Norton Company, 2003. Print. Fowler, D.C. “What the Thunder Said.” A Collection of Critical Essays on “The Waste Land.” Ed. Jay Martin. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1968. 34–36.

Print. Phd Dissertation Assistance 411. Friedrich, Casper David. Der Wanderer uber dem Nebelmeer (Wanderer above the Mist). 1818. Kunsthalle Hamburg. Web. 24 Apr. 2012. http://www.hamburger-kunsthalle.de/index.php/19th_Century.html.

Korg, Jacob. “Modern Art Techniques in ‘The Waste Land.’” Ed. Jay Martin. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1968. 89–96. Print. Martin, Jay. “T. S. Eliot’s ‘The Waste Land.’” A Collection of Critical Essays on good essay cover pages, “The Waste Land.” Ed.

Jay Martin. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1968. Print. Nietzsche, Friedrich. Beyond Good and Evil: Prelude to a Philosophy of the Future. Trans. Walter Kaufmann. New York: Vintage Books, 1989. Print. Raine, Craig.

T. S. Eliot. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. Print. Spender, Stephen. “The Fire Sermon.” A Collection of Critical Essays on “The Waste Land.” Ed. Phd Dissertation. Jay Martin. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1968. 46–48. Print.

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Revisions to Lipset's Economic Theory of Democratic Development: India as a Case Study. Cornell International Affairs Review. Seymour M. Lipset dubbed economic development a “social requisite to democracy,” considering factors such as national wealth, a large degree of industrialization, and good essay cover high levels of education to be necessary fertilizers to prepare a breeding ground for democracy. Short On A Match. Citing many different cases throughout history leading up to the present (which, for him at the time of writing his article, “Some Social Requisites of Democracy,” was 1959), he famously posited that “the more well-to-do a nation, the greater the chances that it will sustain democracy.” 1 While these arguments may ring true for many countries (particularly Western ones), one country in particular does not follow that trend and, thus, fails to good cover, fit into phd dissertation assistance his model. That country is India.

India has long been known as a relatively poor country; even today, as it is increasingly being referred to essay cover pages, as an emerging world power along with China, it has a GNI per capita of just $1,220. That is less than three percent of the United States’ GNI of $46,360, for comparison. 2 The percent of the Indian population at or below the poverty line was a whopping 51.3 percent in 1978, when India was already an independent democracy. 3 Even as recently as 2005, the part 1 essay, percent of the population living in poverty was still high, at 27.5 percent. 4 Yet, since its independence from British colonialism in essay 1947, India has had “more than five decades of periodic elections in which all offices are contested,” making it a “successful democracy.” 5. Clearly, this data provides a surprisingly strong challenge to Lipset’s theory. Lipset even goes as far as to say in his assessment, that “[i]n the rest of Asia east of the Arab world, only two states, the Philippines and Japan, have maintained democratic regimes without the presence of large antidemocratic parties since 1945.” 6 While it is cricket, true that India gained independence in 1947, a difference of two years is essay, clearly not enough justification for Lipset’s monumental oversight. Thus, India’s case illuminates the inadequacy of Lipset’s argument. Possible revisions to his theory are removing the assumption of causality between the factors he mentions, understanding and giving attention to India’s special circumstances of post-colonialism, and legal adding a clause emphasizing the importance of a national set of values based on essay cover religion. Lipset mentions three indicators of a country’s development towards democracy, or rather, social prerequisites for 1 essay democracy: wealth, education, and industrialization. He seems to support Daniel Lerner’s step-by-step path to democracy: wealth leads to education (associated with literacy and media growth, which mutually fuel one another), which leads to technology and industrial development.

The “functional interdependence” of these factors create modernization which Lipset argues eventually leads to democracy. 7 The logic behind this argument of Lipset’s is essay pages, that “only in essays about a wealthy society in which relatively few citizens lived in cover pages real poverty could a situation exist in luther which the mass of the population could intelligently participate in good cover politics and could develop the selfrestraint necessary to avoid succumbing to the appeals of irresponsible demagogues.” 8 Each of essay, these indicators of good essay cover, democracy as proposed by Lipset will now be discussed at length in relation to the case of India. While Lipset argues that a triangleshaped stratification of society associated with widespread poverty makes a country vulnerable to undemocratic value systems, India has proved quite the opposite. Lipset argues that increased national wealth changes the stratification of society from a triangle shape with the elite on top and a large lower class, to a diamond shape, with very few rich, very few poor, and a large, moderately well-to-do, middle class. The triangle shape is vulnerable to undemocratic value systems because the gap between the rich and poor creates pressure on the upper strata to treat the essays music, lower class as “innately inferior” or “a lower caste,” in order to legitimize their superiority in their own eyes.

9. Lipset’s use of the word “caste” here is an uncanny coincidence, as the religious caste system has, for good essay pages years, been a source of ib english 1 essay, great social and political inequality in good essay cover India, a problem with which India still struggles. Part 1 Essay. However, instead of the essay cover pages, Indian democracy crumbling under the legal study, pressure of this and leading to undemocratic legislation or an oligarchy of the elite, quite the opposite has actually happened. Essay Pages. The Indian democracy has instituted “constitutional safeguards to the backwards sections of the population” 10 and the government continues to try to erase long-ingrained prejudices through equalizing legislation. Another point Lipset emphasizes is essay personal, that economic development leads to higher levels of education, which then lead to democracy; in the case of India, however, this is where Lipset’s logical progression first falters. Lipset finds the relationship between increased wealth and higher education to be consistent at cover pages the primary, post-primary, and higher educational level. In the case of India, however this relationship is not untrue. Although India is far less economically developed than other major world democracies, its education level is still up to par with some of the strongest democracies of the world, including the United States. For example, India’s higher education system is second only to the United States and China. 11 Furthermore, India produces 350,000 engineers a year, which is statement, twice as many the good, United States produces.

12. In fact, in short match a line graph of primary school completion rates for good cover India, the United States, and Japan (which has the part 1 essay, strongest education system in the world, with a 100 percent primary school completion rate), one can see that India is on the verge of overtaking the United States and moving beyond, closer to cover, Japan. 13 In other words, India’s education system is growing faster than either of the other two countries. In contradiction to Lipset’s theory, then, economic development is describe, not a prerequisite for high levels of education, as this has not been true in the Indian case. Despite being still economically developing, India shares the same playing field in education as other democratic giants. Lipset’s theory also proposes that economic development is necessary for the eventual development of the media, but India’s lively media contradicts this point as well. Both Lipset and Lerner assert that once a country becomes wealthy, education leads to good pages, widespread literacy, which fertilizes growth of a robust media.

Lerner explains: “There is a close reciprocal relationship between [literacy and media growth], for the literate develop the media which in turn spreads literacy.” 14 The proposal, then, is that the widespread media would, presumably, bolster support for personal and civic freedoms, which would lead to a struggle for democracy. Even though India did not start out with the wealth, which Lipset and Lerner regard as necessary for these developments, India still does “enjoy free and essays music piracy lively media[with] considerable scope to express political dissent and protest.” 15 Some of the fastest growing media markets in the world are those in the Asia-Pacific, and good essay cover among those, “India is one of the most important markets from on a cricket a growth perspective.” 16. Finally, the third factor contributing to democracy, for Lipset, is industrialization; and yet again, India does not fit the good essay cover, theory. One of the indices for industrialization, according to Lipset, is “the percentage of employed males in agriculture.” 17 As recently as 2010, the percent of India’s population living in essay rural, agricultural areas was an overwhelming majority of 70.3 percent of the population. 18 (For the purpose of comparison, the United States had just 18.0 percent of the good essay, population living in rural areas in the same year. 19 ) The other index by good thesis statement king, which Lipset quantifies industrialization is “the per capita commercially produced “energy” being used in the countryper person per year”. 20 This statistic, in terms of kilograms of oil per capita, was just 560 kilograms in essay cover pages 2010 in short essay on a match India, an extremely small figure. 21 (Again, as a point of essay cover, comparison, the United States consumed 7,051 kilograms per capita in the same year. 22 ) This vast disparity clearly illustrates that India’s industrialization still lags far behind other countries’, perhaps the on a cricket, most so of the good cover pages, three indicators of good thesis luther king, democracy that Lipset proposes.

Yet, despite the absence of this third “social requisite,” democracy exists and thrives in India. As shown thus far, India’s strong democracy does not fit comfortably into Lipset’s theory of economic development leading to good cover, democracy, and instead seems to cut jagged holes into on a match the logical progression of good essay cover pages, his argument. Lipset says the first step towards democracy is increased wealth, which India does not have. Although India has very recently been developing economically to phd dissertation assistance 411, compete with China and the rest of the world, its democracy has thrived since 1947, back when this was not the case. Lipset says increased wealth will lead to higher levels of education and media development, which also have occurred in India without the prerequisite of wealth. Finally, he says education and literacy will lead to industrialization and good urbanization, culminating in democracy, and on this last point, India again does not fit, as it is still considered a developing country that is not fully industrialized. So, the story of the Indian democracy within the context of ib english 1 essay, Lipset’s theory of economic development is a series of exceptions, deviations, and good inconsistency.

How, then, did India become a democracy if not through Lipset’s proposed logical progression? Is there some flaw in Lipset’s theory, or some key element he missed? Lipset’s theory is based upon an assumption of essays about music, causation, which is its basic flaw. Lipset left room for exceptions to his theory, and good pages this is important to understand while considering its critique, based on India. In fact, Lipset practically begins his paper with a disclaimer stating that he does not claim to have covered every possible case of democracy in phd dissertation assistance 411 his theory, and that an exception or two to the general trends he proposes “cannot be the sole basis for rejecting the hypothesis.” 23 While this may be true, this stark exception to this theory cannot be ignored, either. The study of exceptions is not necessarily worthless or overly exacting. Cover Pages. Studying the legal study, case of India as it relates to Lipset’s thesis can still yield worthwhile insight into the theory and how it can be revised to be more all-encompassing. Good Essay Cover. With this perspective in mind, the causes of India’s atypical democratic development and possible revisions to Lipset’s theory will now be discussed.

Lipset’s theory is based upon an assumption of causation, which is its basic flaw. He asserts that wealth leads to music, education, which leads to industrialization, which leads to democracy, but it is clear that for India, these events have not necessarily occurred, nor are they necessarily occurring, in that order. While a robust democracy and a strong education system have already been achieved, the country is essay, still economically and industrially developing. However, it cannot be ignored that most strong democracies around the world are indeed wealthy and possess the characteristics that Lipset has pointed out, so the phd dissertation, basic foundation of his theory is true. So, the factors do in fact go together, but they are not caused by essay, one another at allrather, simply correlated. Having any one or more of the different characteristics Lipset indicates does increase the likelihood of the country becoming a democracy, but there is no universal, causal, and part 1 essay sequential path that leads to it. Democratic countries must not necessarily be, but rather tend to be wealthy and cover industrialized with an educated, growing middle class. This change in good thesis statement for martin understanding the relationship between the factors makes the theory much more flexible and would allow it to encompass India as well. With this revision made, the theory would simply assume that the remaining aspects correlated with democracy that India does not have yet are simply on their way. This claim seems to be true so far, for there has been a growing buzz about India’s development over the past few years.

With a record growth rate of 9.5 percent per year in economic development, India is second only to China in essay pages this field, and is expected to overtake it by about piracy, the year 2013. 24 India is industrializing as well, albeit more slowly. Perhaps soon, India will achieve all four characteristics of education, industrialization, wealth, and democracy; they will have just occurred in a different order. So, Lipset’s mistake was to good cover, assume causality among a set of variables that were really only correlated. Removing causality from the argument would render the on a, theory less exact, but more accurate. Another point to consider is that the cover pages, beginning of “India” as it is known today, was an atypical one, and legal study this may have contributed to its relative ease of becoming a democracy. Lipset pointed out that “a deviant caseoften may actually strengthen the basic hypothesis if an intensive study of it reveals the special conditions which prevented the usual relationship from appearing” 25 and this precisely relates to India. Lipset’s theory of development is obviously intended to be a gradual progression towards democracy. That is to say, over the course of a hundred, two hundred, or more years, Lipset would expect the good essay pages, country to acquire the different characteristics leading to democracy. India does not fit Lipset’s and a few other development theories because they presume this slow development into democracy, and India had quite the opposite. India abruptly became a democracy in 1947 after gaining independence after over essay on a, 200 years of British colonialism.

It was not a natural progression from what had existed before, because what had existed before suddenly vanished. Because of this atypical development, India does not fit many such development theories. For example, Barrington Moore’s theory of democratic development is similar to good essay, Lipset’s in that it also presumes gradual political development from ib english part one form of government to the other. Moore posited that hegemonies and competitive oligarchies transform into “near-polyarchies,” then nearpolyarchies into full polyarchies, and lastly, full polyarchies into good essay cover pages democracies in the third wave of king, democratization. 26 Continued on Next Page S. M. Lipset, “Some Social Requisites of essay pages, Democracy: Economic Development and short essay on a cricket match Political Legitimacy,” American Political Science Association 53 (1959): 69. World Bank, “GNI per capita, Atlas method (current US$),” 11 April 2011, . World Bank, “Poverty headcount ratio at good pages national poverty line (% of population),” 11 April 2011, . World Bank, “Poverty headcount ratio at national poverty line (% of phd dissertation assistance, population),” 11 April 2011, . Atul Kohli, The success of India’s democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001) 3. S. M. Lipset, “Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy,” American Political Science Association 53 (1959): 80.

Lipset, 82. Lipset, 75. Lipset, 83. Srinivas, M. N, “Caste in Modern India,” The Journal of good essay cover pages, Asian Studies 16 (1957): 529. Eastman, Julia, “Notes on Higher Education in India: Current Status and Issues,” Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada (Victoria: University of Victoria Press, 2011) 1. Basu, Kaushik, “India’s faltering education system,” BBC News 18 Aug.

2006, 14 April 2011 . World Bank, “Primary completion rate, total (% of relevant age group),” 11 April 2011, . Quoted in Lipset, 82. Kohli, 3. Kohli-Khandekar, 17. Ib English 1 Essay. Lipset, 78. Good. World Bank, “Rural population (% of total population),” 11 April 2011, . World Bank, “Rural population (% of music piracy, total population),” . Good Cover Pages. Lipset, 78. World Bank, “Energy use (kg of describe characteristics, oil equivalent per capita),” 11 April 2011, . World Bank, “Energy use (kg of oil equivalent per capita),” 11 April 2011, . Lipset, 70. ET Bureau, “India to pages, become world’s fastest growing economy by 2013-15: Morgan Stanley.” The Economic Times 17 Aug. Good Thesis Statement For Martin King. 2010, 16 April 2011 . Lipset, 75 Moore, Barrington, Social Origins of good pages, Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World (Boston: Beacon Press, 1993) 11. Lipset, 72. Lipset, 79. Lipset, 81. Lipset, 79.

Huntington’s Class of Civilizations, quoted in Alfred Stepan, “Religion, Democracy and the “Twin Tolerations,”” Journal of Democracy, 11.4 (2000): 38. Ministry of Home Affairs, Census of India, Government of India, 2001, 13 April 2011 . Goel, 6. Stepan, 55. Lipset, 75. Banerjee, A. (2012). 1 Essay. Revisions to cover pages, Lipset's Economic Theory of Democratic Development: India as a Case Study. Essays Piracy. Cornell International Affairs Review , 6 (1). Retrieved from http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/a?id=1210.

Banerjee, Anwesha. Revisions to Lipset's Economic Theory of Democratic Development: India as a Case Study. Cornell International Affairs Review 6.1 (2012). http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/a?id=1210 Banerjee, Anwesha. 2012.

Revisions to Lipset's Economic Theory of Democratic Development: India as a Case Study. Cornell International Affairs Review 6 (1), http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/a?id=1210. BANERJEE, A. 2012. Revisions to Lipset's Economic Theory of Democratic Development: India as a Case Study. Cornell International Affairs Review [Online], 6. Available: http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/a?id=1210. This article was published in. A publication of Cornell University. Rural-Urban Migration and Agricultural Transformation in India: Observing the Impact on Childhood Migration From Bihar to New Delhi.

India and Nigeria: Similar Colonial Legacies, Vastly Different Trajectories: An Examination of the Differing Fates of Two Former British Colonies. Health and Nutritional Status of the Indian Tribes of Tripura and Effects on Education. Further Reading in Political Science. The copyright to this article and other articles from essay pages JournalQuest are maintained by the publishing journal and/or the individual authors according to agreements set forth by and between the publishing journal and the author. Other materials 2017 Student Pulse, LLC.

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Enzymes: principles and biotechnological applications. Enzymes are biological catalysts (also known as biocatalysts) that speed up biochemical reactions in living organisms, and which can be extracted from cells and essay cover, then used to catalyse a wide range of commercially important processes. Legal Study? This chapter covers the basic principles of enzymology, such as classification, structure, kinetics and inhibition, and also provides an overview of industrial applications. Good Essay Cover? In addition, techniques for the purification of good for martin luther king, enzymes are discussed. Enzymes are biological catalysts (also known as biocatalysts) that speed up biochemical reactions in essay cover pages, living organisms. They can also be extracted from cells and then used to catalyse a wide range of commercially important processes. For example, they have important roles in the production of sweetening agents and part, the modification of antibiotics, they are used in washing powders and various cleaning products, and they play a key role in analytical devices and assays that have clinical, forensic and good cover, environmental applications. The word ‘enzyme’ was first used by the German physiologist Wilhelm Kuhne in 1878, when he was describing the ability of yeast to produce alcohol from sugars, and it is music, derived from the Greek words en (meaning ‘within’) and zume (meaning ‘yeast’). In the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century, significant advances were made in the extraction, characterization and good essay pages, commercial exploitation of many enzymes, but it was not until the 1920s that enzymes were crystallized, revealing that catalytic activity is associated with protein molecules.

For the legal case study next 60 years or so it was believed that all enzymes were proteins, but in good pages, the 1980s it was found that some ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules are also able to exert catalytic effects. These RNAs, which are called ribozymes, play an important role in gene expression. In the same decade, biochemists also developed the technology to generate antibodies that possess catalytic properties. These so-called ‘abzymes’ have significant potential both as novel industrial catalysts and in therapeutics. Notwithstanding these notable exceptions, much of short on a cricket, classical enzymology, and cover pages, the remainder of describe, this essay, is focused on the proteins that possess catalytic activity. As catalysts, enzymes are only required in good essay cover pages, very low concentrations, and they speed up reactions without themselves being consumed during the reaction.

We usually describe enzymes as being capable of short, catalysing the conversion of substrate molecules into product molecules as follows: The enormous catalytic activity of enzymes can perhaps best be expressed by pages, a constant, k cat , that is variously referred to on a cricket, as the turnover rate, turnover frequency or turnover number. This constant represents the number of substrate molecules that can be converted to product by a single enzyme molecule per cover pages unit time (usually per minute or per second). Examples of turnover rate values are listed in Table 1. For example, a single molecule of carbonic anhydrase can catalyse the conversion of over half a million molecules of its substrates, carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and water (H 2 O), into the product, bicarbonate (HCO 3 ? ), every second—a truly remarkable achievement. As well as being highly potent catalysts, enzymes also possess remarkable specificity in that they generally catalyse the conversion of only one type (or at describe characteristics most a range of similar types) of substrate molecule into product molecules. Some enzymes demonstrate group specificity. Good Cover? For example, alkaline phosphatase (an enzyme that is commonly encountered in first-year laboratory sessions on enzyme kinetics) can remove a phosphate group from a variety of substrates.

Other enzymes demonstrate much higher specificity, which is described as absolute specificity. For example, glucose oxidase shows almost total specificity for its substrate, ?-D-glucose, and virtually no activity with any other monosaccharides. Describe Characteristics? As we shall see later, this specificity is of paramount importance in many analytical assays and devices (biosensors) that measure a specific substrate (e.g. glucose) in a complex mixture (e.g. a blood or urine sample). Enzymes typically have common names (often called ‘trivial names’) which refer to the reaction that they catalyse, with the suffix -ase (e.g. oxidase, dehydrogenase, carboxylase), although individual proteolytic enzymes generally have the suffix - in (e.g. trypsin, chymotrypsin, papain). Often the trivial name also indicates the substrate on which the enzyme acts (e.g. glucose oxidase, alcohol dehydrogenase, pyruvate decarboxylase). However, some trivial names (e.g. Cover? invertase, diastase, catalase) provide little information about the substrate, the essay product or the reaction involved.

Due to the growing complexity of and inconsistency in good cover pages, the naming of essays about piracy, enzymes, the International Union of Biochemistry set up the good Enzyme Commission to address this issue. The first Enzyme Commission Report was published in thesis for martin king, 1961, and provided a systematic approach to good pages, the naming of enzymes. The sixth edition, published in 1992, contained details of nearly 3 200 different enzymes, and supplements published annually have now extended this number to over 5 000. Within this system, all enzymes are described by a four-part Enzyme Commission (EC) number. For example, the enzyme with the trivial name lactate dehydrogenase has the EC number 1.1.1.27, and about piracy, is more correctly called l –lactate: NAD + oxidoreductase. The first part of the EC number refers to the reaction that the enzyme catalyses (Table 2).

The remaining digits have different meanings according to the nature of the cover pages reaction identified by the first digit. For example, within the oxidoreductase category, the second digit denotes the hydrogen donor (Table 3) and the third digit denotes the hydrogen acceptor (Table 4). Thus lactate dehydrogenase with the EC number 1.1.1.27 is an oxidoreductase (indicated by the first digit) with the alcohol group of the lactate molecule as the hydrogen donor (second digit) and NAD + as the hydrogen acceptor (third digit), and is the 27th enzyme to describe personal, be categorized within this group (fourth digit). Fortunately, it is now very easy to essay pages, find this information for any individual enzyme using the Enzyme Nomenclature Database (available at http://enzyme.expasy.org). Enzyme structure and substrate binding. Amino acid-based enzymes are globular proteins that range in size from essays music piracy less than 100 to more than 2 000 amino acid residues. These amino acids can be arranged as one or more polypeptide chains that are folded and bent to form a specific three-dimensional structure, incorporating a small area known as the active site (Figure 1), where the substrate actually binds. The active site may well involve only a small number (less than 10) of the constituent amino acids. It is the shape and charge properties of the active site that enable it to bind to a single type of substrate molecule, so that the enzyme is able to demonstrate considerable specificity in its catalytic activity.

The hypothesis that enzyme specificity results from the complementary nature of the substrate and its active site was first proposed by the German chemist Emil Fischer in 1894, and became known as Fischer's ‘lock and key hypothesis’, whereby only a key of the correct size and shape (the substrate) fits into the keyhole (the active site) of the lock (the enzyme). It is astounding that this theory was proposed at a time when it was not even established that enzymes were proteins. As more was learned about essay pages enzyme structure through techniques such as X-ray crystallography, it became clear that enzymes are not rigid structures, but are in fact quite flexible in shape. In the light of this finding, in 1958 Daniel Koshland extended Fischer's ideas and presented the ‘induced-fit model’ of substrate and enzyme binding, in which the enzyme molecule changes its shape slightly to accommodate the binding of the part 1 essay substrate. The analogy that is commonly used is the ‘hand-in-glove model’, where the hand and glove are broadly complementary in shape, but the glove is moulded around the essay pages hand as it is inserted in order to provide a perfect match. Since it is the active site alone that binds to the substrate, it is logical to ask what is the role of the rest of the protein molecule.

The simple answer is that it acts to study, stabilize the active site and provide an appropriate environment for interaction of the site with the substrate molecule. Therefore the good essay cover active site cannot be separated out from the rest of the protein without loss of catalytic activity, although laboratory-based directed (or forced) evolution studies have shown that it is cricket, sometimes possible to generate smaller enzymes that do retain activity. It should be noted that although a large number of enzymes consist solely of good, protein, many also contain a non-protein component, known as a cofactor, that is necessary for the enzyme's catalytic activity. A cofactor may be another organic molecule, in which case it is called a coenzyme, or it may be an inorganic molecule, typically a metal ion such as iron, manganese, cobalt, copper or zinc. Assistance 411? A coenzyme that binds tightly and good essay cover pages, permanently to the protein is generally referred to as the essays about prosthetic group of the good cover pages enzyme. When an enzyme requires a cofactor for its activity, the inactive protein component is generally referred to as an apoenzyme, and thesis statement luther king, the apoenzyme plus the cofactor (i.e. the active enzyme) is called a holoenzyme (Figure 2).

The need for minerals and vitamins in the human diet is partly attributable to good, their roles within metabolism as cofactors and coenzymes. How do enzymes work? The broad answer to essays piracy, this question is that they do not alter the equilibrium (i.e. the thermodynamics) of a reaction. This is because enzymes do not fundamentally change the structure and energetics of the products and reagents, but rather they simply allow the reaction equilibrium to be attained more rapidly. Let us therefore begin by cover pages, clarifying the short essay cricket concept of cover pages, chemical equilibrium. In many cases the equilibrium of part, a reaction is far ‘to the right’—that is, virtually all of the good essay cover substrate (S) is converted into product (P). For this reason, reactions are often written as follows: This is a simplification, as in all cases it is more correct to write this reaction as follows: This indicates the presence of an equilibrium.

To understand this concept it is perhaps most helpful to look at short essay on a cricket a reaction where the pages equilibrium point is 411, quite central. In this reaction, if we start with a solution of pages, 1 mol l ?1 glucose and add the enzyme, then upon completion we will have a mixture of approximately 0.5 mol l ?1 glucose and 0.5 mol l ?1 fructose. This is the equilibrium point of this particular reaction, and although it may only take a couple of seconds to reach this end point with the enzyme present, we would in short essay on a cricket, fact come to the same point if we put glucose into solution and good essay cover pages, waited many months for the reaction to occur in the absence of the enzyme. Interestingly, we could also have started this reaction with a 1 mol l ?1 fructose solution, and it would have proceeded in the opposite assistance direction until the same equilibrium point had been reached. The equilibrium point for this reaction is expressed by the equilibrium constant K eq as follows: Thus for a reaction with central equilibrium, K eq = 1, for an equilibrium ‘to the right’ K eq is 1, and for an equilibrium ‘to the left’ K eq is 1. Therefore if a reaction has a K eq value of 10 6 , the equilibrium is very far to the right and essay cover pages, can be simplified by denoting it as a single arrow. We may often describe this type of reaction as ‘going to completion’. Conversely, if a reaction has a K eq value of 10 ?6 , the equilibrium is very far to the left, and for all practical purposes it would not really be considered to proceed at all. It should be noted that although the concentration of reactants has no effect on the equilibrium point, environmental factors such as pH and temperature can and do affect the position of the equilibrium. It should also be noted that any biochemical reaction which occurs in vivo in a living system does not occur in isolation, but as part of a metabolic pathway, which makes it more difficult to conceptualize the relationship between reactants and legal case study, reactions.

In vivo reactions are not allowed to proceed to their equilibrium position. Good Essay? If they did, the phd dissertation 411 reaction would essentially stop (i.e. the forward and reverse reactions would balance each other), and pages, there would be no net flux through the pathway. However, in many complex biochemical pathways some of the phd dissertation assistance 411 individual reaction steps are close to equilibrium, whereas others are far from equilibrium, the latter (catalysed by regulatory enzymes) having the greatest capacity to control the overall flux of materials through the pathway. Enzymes form complexes with their substrates. We often describe an enzyme-catalysed reaction as proceeding through three stages as follows: The ES complex represents a position where the substrate (S) is bound to the enzyme (E) such that the reaction (whatever it might be) is made more favourable. As soon as the reaction has occurred, the good essay pages product molecule (P) dissociates from the enzyme, which is then free to bind to another substrate molecule.

At some point during this process the substrate is converted into an intermediate form (often called the transition state) and then into the product. The exact mechanism whereby the enzyme acts to increase the thesis statement for martin rate of the reaction differs from one system to cover pages, another. However, the general principle is that by binding of the substrate to the enzyme, the reaction involving the substrate is made more favourable by lowering the on a cricket match activation energy of the reaction. In terms of good essay, energetics, reactions can be either exergonic (releasing energy) or endergonic (consuming energy). However, even in short cricket, an exergonic reaction a small amount of energy, termed the good essay cover pages activation energy, is needed to give the reaction a ‘kick start.’ A good analogy is that of a match, the head of which contains a mixture of energy-rich chemicals (phosphorus sesquisulfide and piracy, potassium chlorate). When a match burns it releases substantial amounts of light and heat energy (exergonically reacting with O 2 in good cover pages, the air). However, and perhaps fortunately, a match will not spontaneously ignite, but rather a small input of energy in the form of heat generated through friction (i.e. striking of the match) is needed to initiate the phd dissertation reaction. Essay Cover? Of course once the match has been struck the amount of energy released is considerable, and greatly exceeds the describe small energy input during the striking process. As shown in Figure 3, enzymes are considered to lower the activation energy of a system by making it energetically easier for the transition state to form.

In the presence of an enzyme catalyst, the formation of the transition state is energetically more favourable (i.e. it requires less energy for the ‘kick start’), thereby accelerating the rate at which the reaction will proceed, but not fundamentally changing the energy levels of either the reactant or the good cover pages product. Properties and mechanisms of enzyme action. Enzyme kinetics is the phd dissertation assistance 411 study of factors that determine the speed of essay cover, enzyme-catalysed reactions. It utilizes some mathematical equations that can be confusing to students when they first encounter them. However, the theory of kinetics is both logical and simple, and ib english part 1 essay, it is essential to develop an understanding of this subject in order to be able to appreciate the role of enzymes both in metabolism and in biotechnology. Assays (measurements) of enzyme activity can be performed in either a discontinuous or continuous fashion. Essay? Discontinuous methods involve mixing the substrate and enzyme together and measuring the product formed after a set period of time, so these methods are generally easy and quick to perform. Ib English Part? In general we would use such discontinuous assays when we know little about the system (and are making preliminary investigations), or alternatively when we know a great deal about the good cover pages system and are certain that the time interval we are choosing is appropriate. In continuous enzyme assays we would generally study the rate of an about piracy enzyme-catalysed reaction by mixing the cover pages enzyme with the substrate and continuously measuring the appearance of product over time. Of course we could equally well measure the rate of the reaction by measuring the disappearance of legal case study, substrate over cover pages time. Apart from the actual direction (one increasing and 1 essay, one decreasing), the two values would be identical.

In enzyme kinetics experiments, for convenience we very often use an artificial substrate called a chromogen that yields a brightly coloured product, making the reaction easy to follow using a colorimeter or a spectrophotometer. However, we could in fact use any available analytical equipment that has the cover capacity to ib english part, measure the concentration of either the product or the substrate. In almost all cases we would also add a buffer solution to the mixture. As we shall see, enzyme activity is strongly influenced by pH, so it is important to set the pH at essay cover a specific value and keep it constant throughout the experiment. Our first enzyme kinetics experiment may therefore involve mixing a substrate solution (chromogen) with a buffer solution and adding the enzyme. This mixture would then be placed in a spectrophotometer and the appearance of the coloured product would be measured. This would enable us to follow a rapid reaction which, after a few seconds or minutes, might start to slow down, as shown in about music piracy, Figure 4. A common reason for cover pages, this slowing down of the speed (rate) of the reaction is that the substrate within the mixture is being used up and for martin, thus becoming limiting. Alternatively, it may be that the enzyme is unstable and is denaturing over the course of the good essay experiment, or it could be that the pH of the mixture is part 1 essay, changing, as many reactions either consume or release protons.

For these reasons, when we are asked to specify the rate of a reaction we do so early on, as soon as the enzyme has been added, and when none of the above-mentioned limitations apply. We refer to good essay pages, this initial rapid rate as the initial velocity ( v 0 ). Measurement of the reaction rate at this early stage is also quite straightforward, as the rate is describe personal characteristics, effectively linear, so we can simply draw a straight line and good, measure the statement luther king gradient (by dividing the concentration change by the time interval) in order to essay, evaluate the piracy reaction rate over this period. We may now perform a range of similar enzyme assays to evaluate how the good essay pages initial velocity changes when the study substrate or enzyme concentration is altered, or when the pH is changed. These studies will help us to good pages, characterize the properties of the enzyme under study. The relationship between enzyme concentration and legal case study, the rate of the reaction is usually a simple one.

If we repeat the experiment just described, but add 10% more enzyme, the reaction will be 10% faster, and if we double the enzyme concentration the reaction will proceed twice as fast. Thus there is a simple linear relationship between the good pages reaction rate and the amount of enzyme available to catalyse the reaction (Figure 5). This relationship applies both to enzymes in vivo and to 411, those used in biotechnological applications, where regulation of the amount of enzyme present may control reaction rates. When we perform a series of enzyme assays using the same enzyme concentration, but with a range of different substrate concentrations, a slightly more complex relationship emerges, as shown in Figure 6. Initially, when the substrate concentration is increased, the rate of reaction increases considerably. Good Essay? However, as the part 1 essay substrate concentration is increased further the effects on the reaction rate start to decline, until a stage is reached where increasing the substrate concentration has little further effect on the reaction rate. At this point the enzyme is considered to be coming close to saturation with substrate, and demonstrating its maximal velocity ( V max ). Note that this maximal velocity is in fact a theoretical limit that will not be truly achieved in any experiment, although we might come very close to essay pages, it. The relationship described here is a fairly common one, which a mathematician would immediately identify as a rectangular hyperbola. The equation that describes such a relationship is essay cricket match, as follows: The two constants a and good essay, b thus allow us to describe this hyperbolic relationship, just as with a linear relationship ( y = mx + c ), which can be expressed by the two constants m (the slope) and c (the intercept).

We have in fact already defined the constant a — it is phd dissertation assistance, V max . The constant b is a little more complex, as it is the value on cover, the x -axis that gives half of the maximal value of y . In enzymology we refer to this as the Michaelis constant ( K m ), which is defined as the substrate concentration that gives half-maximal velocity. Our final equation, usually called the Michaelis–Menten equation, therefore becomes: In 1913, Leonor Michaelis and Maud Menten first showed that it was in for martin king, fact possible to derive this equation mathematically from first principles, with some simple assumptions about the good essay cover way in which an enzyme reacts with a substrate to form a product. Legal Case? Central to their derivation is the concept that the reaction takes place via the formation of an ES complex which, once formed, can either dissociate (productively) to essay cover, release product, or else dissociate in the reverse direction without any formation of product. Thus the reaction can be represented as follows, with k 1 , k ?1 and k 2 being the rate constants of the three individual reaction steps: The Michaelis–Menten derivation requires two important assumptions. Phd Dissertation Assistance 411? The first assumption is good essay pages, that we are considering the ib english part initial velocity of the reaction ( v 0 ), when the product concentration will be negligibly small (i.e. [S] ? [P]), such that we can ignore the essay possibility of study, any product reverting to substrate. The second assumption is that the good essay pages concentration of ib english, substrate greatly exceeds the concentration of cover pages, enzyme (i.e. Essay On A Cricket? [S]?[E]). The derivation begins with an equation for the expression of the initial rate, the rate of formation of product, as the rate at which the pages ES complex dissociates to form product.

This is based upon the rate constant k 2 and the concentration of the ES complex, as follows: 1. Since ES is an intermediate, its concentration is unknown, but we can express it in terms of known values. In a steady-state approximation we can assume that although the concentration of substrate and product changes, the concentration of the ES complex itself remains constant. The rate of formation of the ES complex and the rate of about piracy, its breakdown must therefore balance, where: and. Hence, at steady state: This equation can be rearranged to yield [ES] as follows: 2. The Michaelis constant K m can be defined as follows: Equation 2 may thus be simplified to: 3. Since the concentration of substrate greatly exceeds the concentration of enzyme (i.e. [S] ? [E]), the concentration of cover, uncombined substrate [S] is almost equal to the total concentration of substrate. The concentration of uncombined enzyme [E] is equal to the total enzyme concentration [E] T minus that combined with substrate [ES].

Introducing these terms to Equation 3 and solving for ES gives us the following: 4. We can then introduce this term into Equation 1 to give: 5. The term k 2 [E] T in fact represents V max , the maximal velocity. Thus Michaelis and Menten were able to derive their final equation as: A more detailed derivation of the Michaelis–Menten equation can be found in many biochemistry textbooks (see section 4 of Recommended Reading section). Phd Dissertation? There are also some very helpful web-based tutorials available on cover pages, the subject. Michaelis constants have been determined for many commonly used enzymes, and are typically in the lower millimolar range (Table 5). It should be noted that enzymes which catalyse the phd dissertation assistance 411 same reaction, but which are derived from different organisms, can have widely differing K m values. Furthermore, an enzyme with multiple substrates can have quite different K m values for each substrate.

A low K m value indicates that the enzyme requires only a small amount of substrate in order to become saturated. Therefore the maximum velocity is reached at relatively low substrate concentrations. A high K m value indicates the need for high substrate concentrations in order to achieve maximum reaction velocity. Thus we generally refer to good pages, K m as a measure of the affinity of the enzyme for its substrate—in fact it is an inverse measure, where a high K m indicates a low affinity, and vice versa. The K m value tells us several important things about a particular enzyme. An enzyme with a low K m value relative to the physiological concentration of substrate will probably always be saturated with substrate, and will therefore act at a constant rate, regardless of for martin luther king, variations in the concentration of substrate within the physiological range. An enzyme with a high K m value relative to the physiological concentration of substrate will not be saturated with substrate, and cover pages, its activity will therefore vary according to the concentration of essay personal, substrate, so the good essay pages rate of formation of product will depend on the availability of substrate. If an enzyme acts on legal study, several substrates, the substrate with the lowest K m value is frequently assumed to be that enzyme's ‘natural’ substrate, although this may not be true in all cases. If two enzymes (with similar V max ) in different metabolic pathways compete for the same substrate, then if we know the K m values for the two enzymes we can predict the relative activity of the two pathways.

Essentially the pathway that has the enzyme with the lower K m value is likely to be the ‘preferred pathway’, and more substrate will flow through that pathway under most conditions. For example, phosphofructokinase (PFK) is the enzyme that catalyses the first committed step in the glycolytic pathway, which generates energy in the form of ATP for the cell, whereas glucose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase (GUT) is an enzyme early in good pages, the pathway leading to the synthesis of glycogen (an energy storage molecule). Both enzymes use hexose monophosphates as substrates, but the K m of PFK for its substrate is lower than that of GUT for its substrate. Thus at essays about lower cellular hexose phosphate concentrations, PFK will be active and GUT will be largely inactive. At higher hexose phosphate concentrations both pathways will be active. This means that the cells only store glycogen in times of plenty, and always give preference to the pathway of ATP production, which is the more essential function. Very often it is not possible to estimate K m values from a direct plot of velocity against substrate concentration (as shown in Figure 6) because we have not used high enough substrate concentrations to good pages, come even close to estimating maximal velocity, and therefore we cannot evaluate half-maximal velocity and thus K m . Assistance? Fortunately, we can plot our experimental data in a slightly different way in order to obtain these values. The most commonly used alternative is the Lineweaver–Burk plot (often called the double-reciprocal plot). This plot linearizes the hyperbolic curved relationship, and the line produced is easy to cover, extrapolate, allowing evaluation of V max and about piracy, K m . For example, if we obtained only the cover first seven data points in Figure 6, we would have difficulty estimating V max from a direct plot as shown in Figure 7a.

However, as shown in Figure 7b, if these seven points are plotted on a graph of 1/velocity against 1/substrate concentration (i.e. a double-reciprocal plot), the data are linearized, and the line can be easily extrapolated to the left to provide intercepts on both the y -axis and the x -axis, from which V max and K m , respectively, can be evaluated. One significant practical drawback of using the Lineweaver–Burk plot is the excessive influence that it gives to measurements made at the lowest substrate concentrations. Short Essay Match? These concentrations might well be the most prone to error (due to difficulties in making multiple dilutions), and result in cover, reaction rates that, because they are slow, might also be most prone to measurement error. Often, as shown in Figure 8, such points when transformed on essay, the Lineweaver–Burk plot have a significant impact on good pages, the line of best fit estimated from the data, and therefore on the extrapolated values of both V max and K m . The two sets of points shown in Figure 8 are identical except for the single point at the top right, which reflects (because of the assistance plot's double-reciprocal nature) a single point derived from a very low substrate concentration and a low reaction rate. However, this single point can have an enormous impact on the line of best fit and the accompanying estimates of kinetic constants. In fact there are other kinetic plots that can be used, including the Eadie–Hofstee plot, the Hanes plot and pages, the Eisenthal–Cornish-Bowden plot, which are less prone to such problems. Good Thesis King? However, the Lineweaver–Burk plot is still the most commonly described kinetic plot in good cover pages, the majority of enzymology textbooks, and thus retains its influence in undergraduate education. Enzymes are affected by pH and temperature. Various environmental factors are able to affect the rate of short on a cricket, enzyme-catalysed reactions through reversible or irreversible changes in the protein structure. The effects of good pages, pH and temperature are generally well understood.

Most enzymes have a characteristic optimum pH at which the velocity of the 411 catalysed reaction is good essay pages, maximal, and case study, above and below which the velocity declines (Figure 9). The pH profile is dependent on a number of factors. As the pH changes, the ionization of good essay pages, groups both at the enzyme's active site and on the substrate can alter, influencing the phd dissertation 411 rate of binding of the substrate to the active site. These effects are often reversible. Good? For example, if we take an enzyme with an optimal pH (pH opt ) of 7.0 and place it in study, an environment at pH 6.0 or 8.0, the charge properties of the enzyme and the substrate may be suboptimal, such that binding and hence the reaction rate are lowered. If we then readjust the pH to 7.0, the optimal charge properties and hence the maximal activity of the enzyme are often restored. However, if we place the enzyme in a more extreme acidic or alkaline environment (e.g. at pH 1 or 14), although these conditions may not actually lead to changes in the very stable covalent structure of the protein (i.e. its configuration), they may well produce changes in the conformation (shape) of the protein such that, when it is essay cover, returned to pH 7.0, the case study original conformation and hence the enzyme's full catalytic activity are not restored. It should be noted that the optimum pH of an enzyme may not be identical to that of its normal intracellular surroundings. Good Essay? This indicates that the local pH can exert a controlling influence on essays music, enzyme activity. The effects of temperature on enzyme activity are quite complex, and can be regarded as two forces acting simultaneously but in opposite directions. As the temperature is raised, the rate of molecular movement and hence the rate of reaction increases, but at the same time there is a progressive inactivation caused by denaturation of the enzyme protein.

This becomes more pronounced as the temperature increases, so that an apparent temperature optimum (T opt ) is observed (Figure 10). Thermal denaturation is time dependent, and for an enzyme the term ‘optimum temperature’ has little real meaning unless the duration of exposure to that temperature is recorded. The thermal stability of an essay pages enzyme can be determined by first exposing the protein to a range of temperatures for assistance 411, a fixed period of time, and subsequently measuring its activity at one favourable temperature (e.g. Essay Pages? 25°C). The temperature at which denaturation becomes important varies from one enzyme to another. Normally it is assistance, negligible below 30°C, and starts to become appreciable above 40°C. Typically, enzymes derived from microbial sources show much higher thermal stability than do those from mammalian sources, and enzymes derived from extremely thermophilic microorganisms, such as thermolysin (a protease from Bacillus thermoproteolyticus ) and Taq polymerase (a DNA polymerase from Thermus aquaticus ), might be completely thermostable at pages 70°C and about music piracy, still retain substantial levels of activity even at 100°C. Enzymes are sensitive to inhibitors. Substances that reduce the activity of an enzyme-catalysed reaction are known as inhibitors.

They act by either directly or indirectly influencing the catalytic properties of the essay pages active site. Inhibitors can be foreign to the cell or natural components of it. Those in the latter category can represent an important element of the regulation of cell metabolism. Many toxins and also many pharmacologically active agents (both illegal drugs and about, prescription and over-the-counter medicines) act by inhibiting specific enzyme-catalysed processes. Inhibitors are classified as reversible inhibitors when they bind reversibly to an enzyme. A molecule that is structurally similar to the normal substrate may be able to bind reversibly to the enzyme's active site and therefore act as a competitive inhibitor.

For example, malonate is a competitive inhibitor of the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase, as it is capable of binding to the enzyme's active site due to its close structural similarity to the enzyme's natural substrate, succinate (see below). When malonate occupies the active site of cover, succinate dehydrogenase it prevents the natural substrate, succinate, from binding, thereby slowing down the rate of oxidation of succinate to fumarate (i.e. 1 Essay? inhibiting the reaction). One of the characteristics of competitive inhibitors is that they can be displaced from the active site if high concentrations of substrate are used, thereby restoring enzyme activity. Essay? Thus competitive inhibitors increase the K m of a reaction because they increase the concentration of essays about music, substrate required to saturate the enzyme. However, they do not change V max itself.

In the case of certain enzymes, high concentrations of either the substrate or the product can be inhibitory. For example, invertase activity is considerably reduced in good, the presence of high concentrations of sucrose (its substrate), whereas the ?-galactosidase of Aspergillus niger is strongly inhibited by galactose (its product). Products of an enzyme reaction are some of the most commonly encountered competitive inhibitors. Other types of reversible inhibitor also exist. Non-competitive inhibitors react with the enzyme at a site distinct from the active site. Therefore the binding of the inhibitor does not physically block the cricket substrate–binding site, but it does prevent subsequent reaction. Most non-competitive inhibitors are chemically unrelated to the substrate, and their inhibition cannot be overcome by increasing the substrate concentration. Essay Pages? Such inhibitors in effect reduce the describe characteristics concentration of the active enzyme in solution, thereby reducing the V max of the reaction. However, they do not change the value of K m . Uncompetitive inhibition is rather rare, occurring when the inhibitor is good cover, only able to bind to for martin luther king, the enzyme once a substrate molecule has itself bound. As such, inhibition is most significant at high substrate concentrations, and results in a reduction in the V max of the reaction. Uncompetitive inhibition also causes a reduction in K m , which seems somewhat counterintuitive as this means that the affinity of the cover pages enzyme for its substrate is actually increased when the essays music inhibitor is present.

This effect occurs because the binding of the inhibitor to good cover pages, the ES complex effectively removes ES complex and thereby affects the music piracy overall equilibrium of the cover reaction favouring ES complex formation. Essays About? It is noteworthy however that since both V max and K m are reduced the observed reaction rates with inhibitor present are always lower than those in the absence of the uncompetitive inhibitor. Irreversible inhibitors and poisons. If an inhibitor binds permanently to an enzyme it is known as an irreversible inhibitor. Many irreversible inhibitors are therefore potent toxins. Organophosphorus compounds such as diisopropyl fluorophosphate (DFP) inhibit acetylcholinesterase activity by good essay, reacting covalently with an important serine residue found within the active site of the enzyme. For Martin Luther King? The physiological effect of this inactivation is interference with neurotransmitter inactivation at the synapses of nerves, resulting in the constant propagation of nerve impulses, which can lead to death.

DFP was originally evaluated by the British as a chemical warfare agent during World War Two, and modified versions of this compound are now widely used as organophosphate pesticides (e.g. parathione, malathione). Allosteric regulators and the control of enzyme activity. Having spent time learning about enzyme kinetics and cover pages, the Michaelis–Menten relationship, it is often quite disconcerting to ib english 1 essay, find that some of the most important enzymes do not in fact display such properties. Allosteric enzymes are key regulatory enzymes that control the activities of metabolic pathways by responding to inhibitors and activators. These enzymes in fact show a sigmoidal (S-shaped) relationship between reaction rate and substrate concentration (Figure 11), rather than the usual hyperbolic relationship. Thus for allosteric enzymes there is an area where activity is lower than that of an equivalent ‘normal’ enzyme, and good essay pages, also an area where activity is higher than that of an equivalent ‘normal’ enzyme, with a rapid transition between these two phases. This is rather like a switch that can quickly be changed from ‘off’ (low activity) to ‘on’ (full activity). Most allosteric enzymes are polymeric—that is, they are composed of at least two (and often many more) individual polypeptide chains. They also have multiple active sites where the substrate can bind. Much of our understanding of the function of allosteric enzymes comes from studies of haemoglobin which, although it is not an enzyme, binds oxygen in a similarly co-operative way and thus also demonstrates this sigmoidal relationship. Allosteric enzymes have an initially low affinity for the substrate, but when a single substrate molecule binds, this may break some bonds within the enzyme and thereby change the shape of the protein such that the remaining active sites are able to bind with a higher affinity.

Therefore allosteric enzymes are often described as moving from a tensed state or T-state (low affinity) in which no substrate is bound, to a relaxed state or R-state (high affinity) as substrate binds. Other molecules can also bind to phd dissertation 411, allosteric enzymes, at additional regulatory sites (i.e. not at the active site). Molecules that stabilize the protein in cover pages, its T-state therefore act as allosteric inhibitors, whereas molecules that move the protein to its R-state will act as allosteric activators or promoters. A good example of an allosteric enzyme is aspartate transcarbamoylase (ATCase), a key regulatory enzyme that catalyses the ib english part 1 essay first committed step in the sequence of reactions that produce the pyrimidine nucleotides which are essential components of DNA and RNA. The reaction is as follows: The end product in the pathway, the essay pages pyrimidine nucleotide cytidine triphosphate (CTP), is an essays music piracy active allosteric inhibitor of the enzyme ATCase. Therefore when there is a high concentration of CTP in the cell, this feeds back and cover, inhibits the ATCase enzyme, reducing its activity and thus lowering the part rate of good, production of further pyrimidine nucleotides.

As the concentration of CTP in the cell decreases then so does the inhibition of ATCase, and the resulting increase in enzyme activity leads to the production of more pyrimidine nucleotides. This negative feedback inhibition is an important element of biochemical homeostasis within the 1 essay cell. However, in order to synthesize DNA and RNA, the cell requires not only pyrimidine nucleotides but also purine nucleotides, and these are needed in roughly equal proportions. Purine synthesis occurs through a different pathway, but interestingly the final product, the purine nucleotide adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is a potent activator of the enzyme ATCase. This is logical, since when the cell contains high concentrations of purine nucleotides it will require equally high concentrations of pyrimidine nucleotides in order for these two types of nucleotide to combine to form the essay polymers DNA and RNA. Luther King? Thus ATCase is able to regulate the production of pyrimidine nucleotides within the cell according to cellular demand, and also to ensure that pyrimidine nucleotide synthesis is synchronized with purine nucleotide synthesis—an elegant biochemical mechanism for the regulation of an extremely important metabolic process.

There are some rare, although important, cases of monomeric enzymes that have only pages one substrate-binding site but are capable of demonstrating the phd dissertation 411 sigmoidal reaction kinetics characteristic of pages, allosteric enzymes. Particularly noteworthy in this context is the monomeric enzyme glucokinase (also called hexokinase IV), which catalyses the phosphorylation of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate (which may then either be metabolized by the glycolytic pathway or be used in glycogen synthesis). It has been postulated that this kinetic behaviour is a result of individual glucokinase molecules existing in for martin king, one of two forms—a low-affinity form and a high-affinity form. The low-affinity form of the enzyme reacts with its substrate (glucose), is then turned into good pages, the high-affinity form, and remains in that state for a short time before slowly returning to its original low-affinity form (demonstrating a so-called slow transition). Thesis For Martin Luther? Therefore at high substrate concentrations the enzyme is likely to react with a second substrate molecule soon after the first one (i.e. while still in its high-affinity form), whereas at lower substrate concentrations the enzyme may transition back to good essay cover, its low-affinity form before it reacts with subsequent substrate molecules. This results in its characteristic sigmoidal reaction kinetics. Origin, purification and uses of enzymes. Enzymes are essential components of animals, plants and microorganisms, due to the fact that they catalyse and co-ordinate the case complex reactions of cellular metabolism.

Up until the 1970s, most of the commercial application of enzymes involved animal and plant sources. At that time, bulk enzymes were generally only used within the food-processing industry, and enzymes from animals and pages, plants were preferred, as they were considered to be free from the problems of toxicity and contamination that were associated with enzymes of microbial origin. However, as demand grew and as fermentation technology developed, the competitive cost of characteristics, microbial enzymes was recognized and they became more widely used. Compared with enzymes from plant and animal sources, microbial enzymes have economic, technical and ethical advantages, which will now be outlined. The sheer quantity of enzyme that can be produced within a short time, and in a small production facility, greatly favours the use of microorganisms. Good Cover Pages? For example, during the good thesis luther production of rennin (a milk-coagulating enzyme used in cheese manufacture) the traditional approach is to use the enzyme extracted from the stomach of a calf (a young cow still feeding on its mother's milk). Cover Pages? The average quantity of rennet extracted from a calf's stomach is 10 kg, and it takes several months of intensive farming to produce a calf. Phd Dissertation? In comparison, a 1 000-litre fermenter of recombinant Bacillus subtilis can produce 20 kg of enzyme within 12 h. Thus the microbial product is good essay cover pages, clearly preferable economically, and legal case study, is free from the ethical issues that surround the use of animals. Indeed, most of the cheese now sold in supermarkets is made from milk coagulated with microbial enzymes (so is suitable for good, vegetarians).

A further advantage of using microbial enzymes is their ease of extraction. Short Cricket Match? Many of the microbial enzymes used in biotechnological processes are secreted extracellularly, which greatly simplifies their extraction and purification. Microbial intracellular enzymes are also often easier to obtain than the equivalent animal or plant enzymes, as they generally require fewer extraction and purification steps. Animal and plant sources usually need to good, be transported to the extraction facility, whereas when microorganisms are used the same facility can generally be employed for production and extraction. In addition, commercially important animal and essays about music, plant enzymes are often located within only one organ or tissue, so the remaining material is essentially a waste product, disposal of which is required.

Finally, enzymes from essay cover pages plant and animal sources show wide variation in yield, and may only be available at essays music piracy certain times of year, whereas none of these problems are associated with microbial enzymes. Microbial enzymes often have properties that make them more suitable for good essay pages, commercial exploitation. In comparison with enzymes from animal and 411, plant sources, the stability of good essay cover pages, microbial enzymes is phd dissertation 411, usually high. For example, the high temperature stability of enzymes from thermophilic microorganisms is often useful when the cover process must operate at high temperatures (e.g. Describe Personal Characteristics? during starch processing). Microorganisms are also very amenable to essay, genetic modification to produce novel or altered enzymes, using relatively simple methods such as plasmid insertion.

The genetic manipulation of good luther, animals and plants is pages, technically much more difficult, is more expensive and is still the subject of significant ethical concern, especially in the U.K. Enzymes may be intracellular or extracellular. Although many enzymes are retained within the cell, and may be located in specific subcellular compartments, others are released into the surrounding environment. The majority of enzymes in assistance, industrial use are extracellular proteins from either fungal sources (e.g. Aspergillus species) or bacterial sources (e.g.

Bacillus species). Examples of these include ?-amylase, cellulase, dextranase, proteases and pages, amyloglucosidase. Many other enzymes for non-industrial use are intracellular and are produced in much smaller amounts by the cell. Examples of these include asparaginase, catalase, cholesterol oxidase, glucose oxidase and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase. Within the cell, enzymes are generally found along with other proteins, nucleic acids, polysaccharides and lipids. Essays About Music? The activity of the enzyme in relation to the total protein present (i.e. the specific activity) can be determined and used as a measure of good pages, enzyme purity. A variety of methods can be used to remove contaminating material in order to purify the enzyme and increase its specific activity. Enzymes that are used as diagnostic reagents and in clinical therapeutics are normally prepared to a high degree of purity, because great emphasis is placed on thesis, the specificity of the reaction that is being catalysed. Clearly the higher the level of purification, the greater the cost of enzyme production. In the case of many bulk industrial enzymes the degree of purification is less important, and such enzymes may often be sold as very crude preparations of essay, culture broth containing the about music growth medium, organisms (whole or fragmented) and enzymes of essay, interest.

However, even when the cheapest bulk enzymes are utilized (e.g. proteases for use in phd dissertation, washing powders), the enzyme cost can contribute around 5–10% of the final product value. At the end of good, a fermentation in which a microorganism rich in the required enzyme has been cultured, the broth may be cooled rapidly to 5°C to prevent further microbial growth and stabilize the enzyme product. The pH may also be adjusted to optimize enzyme stability. If the enzyme-producing organism is a fungus, this may be removed by legal case study, centrifugation at low speed. If the enzyme source is bacterial, the bacteria are often flocculated with aluminum sulfate or calcium chloride, which negate the charge on the bacterial membranes, causing them to clump and thus come out of good cover pages, suspension. Extracellular enzymes are found in part 1 essay, the liquid component of the pretreatment process. However, intracellular enzymes require more extensive treatment. The biomass may be concentrated by centrifugation and washed to remove medium components.

The cellular component must then be ruptured to release the enzyme content. This can be done using one or more of the following processes: • ball milling (using glass beads) • enzymic removal of the cell wall. • liquid shearing through a small orifice at essay pages high pressure (e.g. Phd Dissertation Assistance? within a French press) Separation of enzymes from the resulting solution may then involve a variety of separation processes, which are often employed in a sequential fashion. The first step in an enzyme purification procedure commonly involves separation of the proteins from the pages non-protein components by a process of salting out. Essay Describe? Proteins remain in aqueous solution because of essay cover, interactions between the hydrophilic (water-loving) amino acids and the surrounding water molecules (the solvent). Phd Dissertation Assistance 411? If the ionic strength of the solvent is increased by good essay cover, adding an agent such as ammonium sulfate, some of the water molecules will interact with the salt ions, thereby decreasing the legal case study number of water molecules available to interact with the protein.

Under such conditions, when protein molecules cannot interact with the solvent, they interact with each other, coagulating and coming out of solution in good essay pages, the form of a precipitate. Phd Dissertation Assistance? This precipitate (containing the enzyme of interest and other proteins) can then be filtered or centrifuged, and separated from the supernatant. Since different proteins vary in the extent to which they interact with water, it is good essay, possible to perform this process using a series of additions of ammonium sulfate, increasing the ionic strength in a stepwise fashion and removing the precipitate at each stage. Thus such fractional precipitation is not only capable of ib english, separating protein from non-protein components, but can also enable separation of the enzyme of interest from some of the other protein components. Subsequently a wide variety of techniques may be used for further purification, and steps involving chromatography are standard practice. Ion-exchange chromatography is often effective during the good essay cover early stages of the purification process. The protein solution is added to a column containing an insoluble polymer (e.g. cellulose) that has been modified so that its ionic characteristics will determine the type of mobile ion (i.e. cation or anion) it attracts.

Proteins whose net charge is opposite to that of the ion-exchange material will bind to it, whereas all other proteins will pass through the column. For Martin Luther? A subsequent change in pH or the introduction of a salt solution will alter the electrostatic forces, allowing the retained protein to be released into solution again. Gel filtration can be utilized in good pages, the later stages of essay characteristics, a purification protocol to separate molecules on the basis of good cover, molecular size. Columns containing a bed of cross-linked gel particles such as Sephadex are used. These gel particles exclude large protein molecules while allowing the entry of assistance 411, smaller molecules. Separation occurs because the essay cover larger protein molecules follow a path down the column between the Sephadex particles (occupying a smaller fraction of the column volume). Larger molecules therefore have a shorter elution time and are recovered first from the gel filtration column. Affinity chromatography procedures can often enable purification protocols to be substantially simplified.

Typically, with respect to enzyme purification, a column would be packed with a particulate stationary phase to which a ligand molecule such as a substrate analogue, inhibitor or cofactor of the enzyme of interest would be firmly bound. As the sample mixture is passed through the column, the enzyme interacts with, and 1 essay, binds, to the immobilised ligand, being retained within the column as all of the other components of the mixture pass through the good essay cover column unrewarded. Subsequently a solution of the ligand is introduced to the column to release (elute) and thereby recover the bound enzyme from the on a match column in a highly purified form. Nowadays numerous alternative affinity chromatography procedures exist that are able to good cover, separate enzymes by binding to areas of the molecule away form their active site. Advances in molecular biology enable us to good thesis luther king, purify recombinant proteins, including enzymes, through affinity tagging. Essay Cover? In a typical approach the gene for the enzyme of interest would be modified to good thesis for martin luther king, code for a further short amino acid sequence at either the N- or C- terminal. For example, a range of polyhistidine tagging procedures are available to good cover pages, yield protein products with six or more consecutive histidine residues at their N- or C- terminal end. When a mixture containing the tagged protein of interest is subsequently passed through a column containing a nickel-nitrilotriacetic acid (Ni-NTA) agarose resin, the histidine residues on phd dissertation assistance, the recombinant protein bind to the nickel ions attached to the support resin, retaining the protein, whilst other protein and non-protein components pass through the column. Elution of the bound protein can then be accomplished by adding imidazole to cover pages, the column, or by reducing the pH to 5-6 to displace the His-tagged protein from the nickel ions. Such techniques are therefore capable of rapidly and highly effectively isolating an enzyme from a complex mixture in only one step, and typically provide protein purities of up to 95%. If more highly purified enzyme products are required, other supplemental options are also available, including various forms of preparative electrophoresis e.g. disc-gel electrophoresis and isoelectric focusing.

Enzymes are antigenic, and since problems occurred in the late 1960s when manufacturing workers exhibited severe allergic responses after breathing enzyme dusts, procedures have now been implemented to reduce dust formation. These involve supplying enzymes as liquids wherever possible, or increasing the particle size of dry powders from 10 ?m to 200–500 ?m by either prilling (mixing the legal enzyme with polyethylene glycol and preparing small spheres by atomization) or marumerizing (mixing the enzyme with a binder and water, extruding long filaments, converting them into spheres in a marumerizer, drying them and covering them with a waxy coat). Although many industrial processes, such as cheese manufacturing, have traditionally used impure enzyme sources, often from animals or plants, the development of good, much of modern industrial enzymology has gone hand in hand with the commercial exploitation of microbial enzymes. These were introduced to the West in around 1890 when the case study Japanese scientist Jokichi Takamine settled in the U.S.A. and set up an enzyme factory based on Japanese technology. The principal product was Takadiastase, a mixture of amylolytic and proteolytic enzymes prepared by cultivating the fungus Aspergillus oryzae on rice or wheat bran. Takadiastase was marketed successfully in the U.S.A. as a digestive aid for the treatment of essay cover pages, dyspepsia, which was then believed to result from the incomplete digestion of starch. Bacterial enzymes were developed in France by August Boidin and Jean Effront, who in 1913 found that Bacillus subtilis produced a heat-stable ?-amylase when grown in 411, a liquid medium made by extraction of malt or grain. The enzyme was primarily used within the textile industry for the removal of the starch that protects the warp in the manufacture of essay, cotton.

In around 1930 it was found that fungal pectinases could be used in the preparation of fruit products. In subsequent years, several other hydrolases were developed and sold commercially (e.g. Phd Dissertation Assistance 411? pectosanase, cellulase, lipase), but the good cover technology was still fairly rudimentary. After World War Two the fermentation industry underwent rapid development as methods for the production of antibiotics were developed. These methods were soon adapted for the production of enzymes. In the 1960s, glucoamylase was introduced as a means of hydrolysing starch, replacing acid hydrolysis. Legal? Subsequently, in the 1960s and 1970s, proteases were incorporated into detergents and then glucose isomerase was introduced to produce sweetening agents in the form of high-fructose syrups.

Since the 1990s, lipases have been incorporated into washing powders, and a variety of immobilized enzyme processes have been developed (see section on good essay, enzyme immobilization), many of which utilize intracellular enzymes. Currently, enzymes are used in four distinct fields of commerce and technology (Table 6): • as industrial catalysts. • as therapeutic agents. • as analytic reagents. • as manipulative tools (e.g. in genetics). Of the thousands of different types of enzymes, about 95% are available from suppliers in quantities ranging from ?g to kg, provided essentially for research purposes. Around 40–50 enzymes are produced on an industrial scale (i.e. ranging from multiple kilograms to tonnes per annum).

The global enzyme market is currently dominated by the hydrolases, especially the proteases, together with amylases, cellulases and lipases supplied either as liquid concentrates or as powders or granules that release the essay describe personal soluble enzyme on dissolution. Global production is dominated by two companies, which between them supply more than two-thirds of the global enzyme market, namely the good cover Danish company Novozymes, with a market share of 47%, and the U.S. company DuPont (which recently acquired Genencor), with 21%. The value of the world enzyme market has increased steadily from ib english ?110 million in 1960 to ?200 million in 1970, ?270 million in 1980, ?1 000 million in 1990 and over ?2 000 million in 2010. Food and beverage enzymes represented the largest sector of the industrial enzymes market in 2010, with a value of ?750 million, and the market for good essay cover, enzymes for technical applications (including diagnostic applications, research and biotechnology) accounted for short cricket, a further ?700 million. Essay Cover Pages? Estimates of future demand are in the range of ?4 000–5 000 million between 2015 and 2016, growing at assistance a rate of good, 6–7% annually. The developing economies of the Asia-Pacific Region, the Middle East and Africa are now seen to phd dissertation assistance 411, be emerging as the fastest growing markets for industrial enzymes. Microbial enzymes are typically produced in batches by culturing the producing organism within a batch fermenter. Fermentation typically lasts between 30 and 150 h, with the optimum enzyme yield for good essay cover, the process falling somewhere between the optimum biomass yield and the point of essay on a cricket match, maximal enzyme activity within the cells. Relatively small fermenters with a volume of 10–100 m 3 are generally employed, allowing flexibility where a number of different products are being produced.

Many production systems are optimized by good cover, means of a fed-batch process, in which substrates are gradually fed into the reactor over the course of the fermentation, rather than being provided all at essays music piracy once at cover pages the start of the process. True continuous culture techniques have been used in laboratory-scale studies, but have not been widely implemented on a commercial scale, although Novozymes does have a continuous process for the production of glucose isomerase, since this is a larger-volume market and the company has a very strong market share. During the production of commercially important products via enzymatic catalysis, soluble enzymes have traditionally been used in batch processes that employ some form of stirred-tank reactor (STR). In these processes, at the end of the batch run the product must be separated from essays about music piracy any unused substrate, and also from the enzyme catalyst. Removal of the enzyme at good pages this stage can be achieved by thermal denaturation (only if the product is thermostable) or by ammonium sulfate precipitation or ultrafiltration. These processes represent a costly downstream processing stage and generally render the enzyme inactive, so when a new batch run is to be started a fresh batch of enzyme is required. Immobilized enzyme systems, in contrast, ‘fix’ the enzyme so that it can be reused many times, which has a significant impact on production costs. As a very simple example, if an enzyme is essay describe personal, mixed with a solution of warm (but not too hot) agar and this is allowed to set, the enzyme will be entrapped (for the purposes of good, this example let us ignore the fact that the enzyme will gradually leak out of this gel). The agar can then be cut up into cubes and these can be placed in a STR, together with substrate, as shown in Figure 12. Again the reaction would be allowed to proceed (and it might actually be slower due to diffusional constraints and other effects described later).

At the end of the batch run the catalyst can now be easily separated from the product by passing the essay personal characteristics reactor contents through a coarse mesh. Immediately an good cover important downstream processing step has been carried out and, just as importantly, the active enzyme has been recovered so that it can be reused for the next batch run. This ease of separation of enzyme from product is a major advantage of essay match, all immobilized systems over their counterparts that use free (i.e. soluble) enzyme. This physical advantage of ease of reuse of immobilized biocatalysts is one of the main reasons why such systems are favoured commercially. However, immobilization may also produce biochemical changes that lead to enhanced biocatalyst stability, which may be manifested as: • an increased rate of catalysis.

• prolonged duration of catalysis. • greater operational stability to extremes of pH, temperature, etc. The particular advantage(s) conferred by immobilization will therefore differ from one system to another. It should be noted that often there may be no biochemical advantage at all, and the simple physical advantage of ease of cover pages, separation of the biocatalyst from the study product may be sufficient to favour the commercial development of an immobilized process. At this point one problem that will immediately spring to good pages, mind for most students is that they have always been taught to fully mix all of the essay personal characteristics reagents of a reaction, yet the good essay cover pages basic principle of immobilization is to characteristics, partition the biocatalyst into cover, a distinct phase, rather than mix it homogeneously with the assistance substrate. Good Cover? Will this not cause reaction rates to be low? The answer to this question is about music, yes, and the relationship between the activity of an immobilized system and a non-immobilized system can be expressed as the effectiveness factor (?), where: Thus an immobilized system with an effectiveness factor of 0.1 would show only 10% of the activity of a non-immobilized system with the same amount of enzyme and operating under the essay cover same conditions. At first sight this might appear to be a major problem. However, if it is possible to reuse the cricket biocatalyst many times this is still economically viable, even with systems that have a low effectiveness factor.

In principle, therefore, for economic viability: Thus if an immobilized system has an effectiveness factor of 0.1 (i.e. 10%) and essay pages, we can reuse the ib english biocatalyst 10 times, we essentially achieve the good essay pages same overall catalytic activity with both the about music piracy non-immobilized system and the immobilized one. However, if we are able to reuse the biocatalyst 100 times we in fact obtain 10 times more total activity from the essay cover immobilized system than from the equivalent non-immobilized system, so the immobilized system may be economically preferable. Once a biocatalyst has been immobilized it can also be put in 411, a range of continuous-flow reactors, enabling a continuous supply of substrate to be turned into product as it passes through the reactor. Pages? The control of such continuous-flow reactors can be highly automated, leading to considerable savings in production costs. Legal? For example, a STR can be easily modified to produce a continuous-flow stirred-tank reactor (CSTR) (Figure 13a), in which the enzyme is held within the reactor by a coarse mesh, and the product continuously flows out of the reactor as substrate is pumped in. It is also possible to produce a packed-bed reactor (PBR) (Figure 13b), in which the agar cubes are packed into a column and the substrate is good cover, pumped through the bed without any need for stirring. CSTRs and PBRs enable the enzyme to essay personal, be reused many times before it needs to be replaced. For example, in the production of high-fructose syrups, the immobilized glucose isomerase enzyme would typically be used continuously for between 2 and 4 months, and only after this time (when its activity would have dropped to 25% of the good original level) would it need to be replaced. The overall operating costs of continuous-flow reactors are often significantly lower than those of equivalent batch processes.

Batch reactors need to be emptied and piracy, refilled frequently at regular intervals. Not only is good cover, this procedure expensive, but it also means that there are considerable periods of time when such reactors are not productive (so-called ‘downtime’). In addition, batch processes make uneven demands on both labour and services. They may also result in pronounced batch-to-batch variations, as the reaction conditions change with time, and they may be difficult to scale up, due to the changing power requirements for efficient mixing. Due to their higher overall process efficiency, continuous processes using immobilized enzymes may be undertaken in production facilities that are around 10 to 100 times smaller than those required for equivalent batch processes using soluble enzymes. Therefore the capital costs involved in about music, setting up the essay cover facility are also considerably lower. It should be noted that although the agar entrapment method described here has provided a useful example, it is not a particularly effective form of immobilization. Short Essay Match? The high temperature required to prevent the agar from setting may lead to thermal inactivation of the good pages enzyme, and the agar gel itself is very porous and will allow the enzyme to leak out into the surrounding solution. There are in fact thousands of different techniques of immobilization, all of personal, which are much more effective than our example.

In general these techniques can be classified as belonging to one of three categories (Figure 14): The physical adsorption of an enzyme to a supporting matrix is the oldest method of immobilization. As early as 1916, J.M. Nelson and Edward G. Griffin described the good cover adsorption of yeast invertase on to activated charcoal, and the subsequent use of this preparation for part 1 essay, sucrose hydrolysis. Essay Cover? Over the years a variety of adsorbents have been used, including cellulose, Sephadex, polystyrene, kaolinite, collagen, alumina, silica gel and glass.

Such immobilization procedures are extremely easy to perform, as the adsorbent and enzyme are simply stirred together for good statement luther king, a time (typically minutes to essay cover, hours). Phd Dissertation Assistance 411? The binding forces that immobilize the catalyst on good pages, the support may involve hydrogen bonds, van der Waals forces, ionic interactions or hydrophobic interactions. Thesis For Martin King? Such forces are generally weak in comparison with covalent bonds—for example, a hydrogen bond has an energy content of about 20 kJ mol ?1 , compared with 200–500 kJ mol ?1 for a covalent bond. Thus, when using such methods, yields (i.e. the amount of enzyme bound per unit of adsorbent) are generally low. In addition, adsorption is good essay cover pages, generally easily reversed, and can lead to desorption of the good statement for martin luther king enzyme at a critical time.

However, despite these limitations, such a method was used in the first commercial immobilized enzyme application, namely DEAE–Sephadex-immobilized l -amino acid acylase, in good essay cover pages, 1969. DEAE–Sephadex is an ion-exchange resin that consists of an inert dextran particle activated by the addition of numerous diethylaminoethyl groups. Particles of this material remain positively charged at pH 6–8 (see Figure 15a) and thus bind strongly to proteins, which are generally negatively charged in this pH range. If the pH is kept constant, the enzyme and support will remain ionically linked. However, when over time the enzyme loses its activity through denaturation, the pH can be adjusted to a more acidic value, the old enzyme will be desorbed, and legal case study, the pH can then be readjusted back to good, pH 6–8 and a fresh batch of enzyme bound. Piracy? Thus the support matrix may be used many times, giving the process significant economic benefits. Clearly DEAE–Sephadex immobilization is only of value for enzymes that have a neutral-to-alkaline pH optimum. For enzymes that function best under acidic conditions, CM–Sephadex is more suitable.

This contains carboxymethyl groups that remain negatively charged at pH 3.5–4.5 (Figure 15b). Proteins at this pH are generally positively charged and essay cover, will thus ionically bind to the support. Ib English? Desorption of the enzyme will occur when the pH is adjusted to a more alkaline value. Due to good pages, the simplicity and controllability of this immobilization procedure, combined with the economic benefits of reuse of the support, ion-exchange materials are now widely used as the method of choice in many industrial settings. Immobilization of enzymes by covalent bonding to activated polymers is a widely used approach since, although it is often a tedious procedure, it is capable of producing an immobilized enzyme that is firmly bound to its support. The range of polymers and chemical coupling procedures that are used is enormous. The history of covalent bonding for enzyme immobilization dates back to study, 1949, when F. Michael and J. Ewers used the azide derivative of carboxymethylcellulose to immobilize a variety of proteins. Activated cellulose supports continue to be popular due to their inherent advantages of high hydrophilicity, ready availability, potential for derivatization, and the ease with which cellulose-based polymers can be produced either as particulate powders or as membranous films.

It is often more effective not to build the reactive group into the cellulose itself, but instead to use a chemical ‘bridge’ between the cellulose and the enzyme molecule. The requirements for such a bridging or linking molecule are that it must be small, and that once it has reacted with the essay cover pages support it must have a further reactive group capable of reacting with the enzyme. An example of part 1 essay, such a bridging molecule is glutaraldehyde, which contains two aldehyde groups, one at either end of its (CH 2 ) 3 moiety. At neutral pH values the aldehyde groups will react with free amino groups. Pages? Thus one end of the glutaraldehyde molecule may be attached to the support, and the other to on a cricket match, the enzyme. Covalently immobilized enzymes are strongly bound to their support, so when the good essay pages proteins denature they are difficult to remove (in contrast to adsorption, as described earlier). 1 Essay? Therefore it is essay cover pages, usual for both the enzyme and study, the support to be replaced. This may result in higher operational costs compared with adsorption techniques in which the good support may be reused.

The entrapment of an enzyme can be achieved in phd dissertation 411, a number of ways: • inclusion within the matrix of a highly cross-linked polymer. • separation from the cover pages bulk phase by a semi-permeable ‘microcapsule’ • dissolution in study, a distinct non-aqueous phase. An important feature of essay cover, entrapment techniques is that the enzyme is not in fact attached to anything. Essays About Music Piracy? Consequently there are none of the steric problems associated with covalent or adsorption methods (i.e. the good essay pages possibility of the enzyme binding in such a way that its active site is obstructed by part of the supporting polymer matrix). The example of an enzyme retained in agar, described earlier, is a useful illustration of entrapment. A preferable alternative involves mixing the catalyst with sodium alginate gel and extruding this into essay, a solution of cover, calcium chloride to produce solid calcium alginate particles. This technique has the advantage of not requiring the use of study, high temperatures. However, although it is a popular activity in teaching laboratories, outside that setting it is generally unsuitable for the immobilization of purified enzymes, as these are often able to leak out of the gel. Good Pages? Entrapment techniques for purified enzymes are more likely to involve retaining the enzyme behind some form of ultrafiltration membrane. However, gel entrapment procedures may be useful when dealing with larger catalysts, such as whole cells.

For example, gel-immobilized living yeast cells have been used successfully in the manufacture of statement, champagne by Moet Chandon. Immobilization: changes in enzyme properties. Earlier in this essay it was suggested that immobilization might change the properties of an enzyme to enhance its stability. Initially it was believed that such enhanced stability resulted from the formation of bonds between the enzyme and good, the supporting matrix that physically stabilize the structure of the protein. Indeed there are some published reports that describe this phenomenon.

With regard to the stabilization of proteolytic enzymes, which often exhibit more prolonged activity in the immobilized state, this is phd dissertation assistance, most probably explained by the fact that such proteases in free solution are prone to autodigestion (i.e. Essay Cover? enzyme molecules cleave the peptide bonds of adjacent enzyme molecules), a process that is largely prevented when they are fixed to thesis statement luther, a supporting matrix. However, the effects of immobilization are more often due to the supporting matrix changing the microenvironment around the enzyme and/or introducing diffusional constraints that modify the activity of the catalyst. Consider, for example, immobilization of the good essay cover enzyme by adsorption on to a polyanionic (negatively charged) support such as cellulose. If the substrate is a cation (i.e. positively charged), it will be attracted to the support and thus to the enzyme. In this case the enzyme might well display higher activity, as the substrate concentration in its microenvironment would be higher than that in the surrounding bulk phase. Other cations would also be attracted, and importantly these would include H + ions. Thus the microenvironment would also be enriched in H + ions, so the part 1 essay pH surrounding the pages enzyme would be lower than the pH of the bulk phase. Thesis For Martin Luther? Consequently the enzyme would also exhibit an good essay cover altered pH profile compared with that of phd dissertation, its soluble counterpart. In addition, the essay immobilization matrix might act as a barrier to essay characteristics, the diffusion of substrates, products and other molecules.

For example, if a high enzyme loading was put into a gel particle and good essay cover, this was then immersed in essay on a cricket match, substrate solution, the good essay pages substrate would diffuse into the gel and rapidly be converted into product. Enzyme molecules entrapped deeper within the gel particle might therefore be inactive simply because they had not received any substrate to work on (i.e. all of the substrate was converted to product in the outer layers of the particle). Although this is essays about, obviously somewhat inefficient, it does have one useful effect. When over time the enzyme within the system denatures, the loss of activity of the enzyme in the outer part of the particle means that substrate will now diffuse deeper into the particle to good, reach the previously unused core enzyme molecules. In effect this inner reserve of enzyme will offset the loss of enzyme activity through denaturation, so the system will show little or no overall loss of activity.

This explains the observation that immobilized systems often have a longer operational lifetime than their soluble equivalents. In addition, it is of interest that enzymes bound to natural cell membranes (phospholipid bilayers) within living cells will also probably demonstrate these effects, and immobilized systems thus provide useful models for the study of such membrane-bound proteins in living cells. The major industrial processes that utilize immobilized enzymes are listed in Table 7. Sales of immobilized enzymes peaked in 1990, when they accounted for phd dissertation 411, about 20% of all industrial enzyme sales, almost entirely due to the use of glucose isomerase for essay pages, the production of sweetening agents. Other commercial applications utilize penicillin acylase, fumarase, ?–galactosidase and about, amino acid acylase. Since 2000, although there has been consistent growth in enzyme markets, few new processes employing immobilized enzymes have been introduced. The following three examples highlight many of the biochemical, technological and economic considerations relating to the use of immobilized enzymes on a commercial and industrial scale. Undoubtedly the good pages most significant large-scale application of immobilized enzymes involves the production of assistance, high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS). Although most of the good essay cover general public believe that sucrose is responsible for the ‘sweetness’ of food and study, drinks, there have been significant efforts to replace sucrose with alternative, and often cheaper, soluble caloric sweetening agents. HFCS is a soluble sweetener that has been used in many carbonated soft drinks since the 1980s, including brand-name colas such as Coca-Cola and Pepsi-Cola.

HFCS is good pages, produced by the enzymatic digestion of starch derived from corn (maize). Assistance? Developments in HFCS production have been most prominent in countries such as the U.S.A., which have a high capacity to produce starch in the form of corn, but which do not cultivate significant amounts of sugar cane or sugar beet, and must therefore import either the pages raw products (for processing) or the refined sugar (sucrose) itself. Simple corn syrups can be manufactured by breaking down starch derived from corn using the enzyme glucoamylase alone or in assistance 411, combination with ?-amylase. These enzymes are cheap and good pages, can be used in a soluble form. Since starch has to be extracted from essays about corn at high temperatures (because starch has poor solubility at low temperatures and essay cover, forms very viscous solutions), the process utilizes enzymes from legal case thermophilic organisms, which have very high temperature optima. Cover? Simple corn syrup is thesis for martin luther king, therefore composed predominantly of good cover, glucose, which unfortunately has only 75% of the sweetness of sucrose. However, in order to phd dissertation 411, make the syrup sweeter the enzyme glucose isomerase, which catalyses the following reaction, can be employed: This enzyme (described previously in good essay pages, the section on properties and mechanisms of enzyme action) will produce a roughly 50:50 mixture of glucose and short on a cricket, fructose at equilibrium, and good, since fructose has 150% of the sweetness of sucrose, this glucose:fructose mixture will have a similar level of sweetness to sucrose.

However, glucose isomerase is an intracellular bacterial enzyme, and would be prohibitively expensive to use in a soluble form. 1 Essay? This makes it an ideal candidate for cover pages, use in an immobilized process. The first glucose isomerase enzyme to be isolated was obtained from species of Pseudomona s in 1957, and legal case, more useful enzymes were isolated throughout the 1960s from good essay species of Bacillus and Streptomyces. Legal? In 1967, the Clinton Corn Processing Company of Iowa, U.S.A. (later renamed CPC International) introduced a batch process that utilized an immobilized glucose isomerase enzyme, and by 1972 the good essay cover pages company had developed a continuous process for the manufacture of HFCS containing 42% fructose using a glucose isomerase enzyme immobilized on a DEAE ion-exchange support. During the late 1970s, advances in enzymology, process engineering and phd dissertation, fractionation technology led to the production of syrups with a higher fructose content, and good essay pages, today HFCS containing 55% fructose is generally produced, and is commonly used in for martin luther king, soft drinks, although 42% fructose syrups are still also produced for use in some processes, including the production of bakery foodstuffs. In 2010, the U.S. production of HFCS was approximately 8 million metric tons, accounting for 37% of the good essay U.S. Phd Dissertation Assistance 411? caloric sweetener market, and it is estimated that today about 5% of the entire corn crop in good cover pages, the U.S.A. is used to produce HFCS. Within the dairy industry the production of 1 kg of case, cheese requires about 10 litres of milk, and produces about 9 litres of pages, whey as a waste product. Whey is a yellowish liquid containing 6% dry matter, of legal study, which nearly 80% is lactose. The enzyme lactase (?-galactosidase) may be used to break down lactose to its constituent monosaccharides, namely glucose and galactose, which are more soluble than lactose, and have potential uses as carbon sources in microbial fermentation, and can also be used as caloric sweeteners. Valio Ltd of Finland has developed arguably the most successful commercial process for the treatment of whey.

Using a lactase enzyme obtained from essay Aspergillus , immobilized by adsorption and cross-linked on to a support resin, whey syrups are produced that have been utilized as an ingredient in drinks, ice cream and about music piracy, confectionery products. The Aspergillus enzyme has an acid pH optimum of 3–5, and by operating at low pH the process avoids excessive microbial contamination. Treatment plants that utilize 600-litre columns have been built in Finland, and good essay cover, these are used to treat 80 000 litres of whey per day. This technology has also been used to produce whey syrups in England (by Dairy Crest) and in Norway. Similar technology can also be used to remove lactose from milk. Lactose-free milk is produced for consumption by those who have lactose intolerance (a genetic condition), and also for consumption by pets such as cats, which are often unable to digest lactose easily. The first industrial processing facility to use immobilized lactase to treat milk was opened in 1975, when Centrale del Latte of Milan, Italy, utilized a batch process in which yeast ( Saccharomyces ) lactase, with a neutral pH optimum of part 1 essay, 6–8, was immobilized within hollow permeable fibres.

This process was capable of treating 10 000 litres of milk per day, and cover, was operated at low temperature to essay match, prevent microbial contamination. Production of good essay pages, semi-synthetic penicillins. High yields of natural penicillins are obtained from species of the fungus Penicillium through fermentation processes. Essay Describe? However, over the years many microbial pathogens have become resistant to natural penicillins, and are now only treatable with semi-synthetic derivatives. These are produced through cleavage of natural penicillin, such that the good cover pages G or V side chain is removed from the 6-aminopenicillanic acid (6-APA) nucleus of the molecule: Thereafter, by attachment of a chemically different side chain, a semi-synthetic penicillin product (e.g. ampicillin, amoxicillin) can be formed. In addition, the 6-APA can undergo chemical ring expansion to part 1 essay, yield 7-aminodesacetoxycephalosporanic acid (7-ADCA), which can then be used to generate a number of essay cover pages, important cephalosporin antibiotics (e.g. cephalexin, cephradine, cefadroxil). The development of immobilized penicillin G acylase dates back to research conducted in personal characteristics, 1969 by University College London and Beecham Pharmaceuticals in the U.K. Penicillin G acylases are intracellular enzymes found in E. coli and a variety of other bacteria, and the Beecham process immobilized the E. coli enzyme on a DEAE ion-exchange support.

Later systems used more permanent covalent bonding to attach the enzyme to the support. In the 1980s and 1990s, world production of penicillins was dominated by European manufacturers, which accounted for production of around 30 000 tonnes of penicillin per annum, 75% of which was used for the manufacture of semi-synthetic penicillins and cephalosporins. However, over essay cover the past 10 years, due to increasing costs of labour, energy and raw materials, more bulk manufacturing has moved to the Far East, where China, Korea and phd dissertation assistance, India have become major producers. The market currently suffers from significant overcapacity, which has driven down the unit cost of penicillin and cephalosporin products. However, penicillins and cephalosporins still represent one of the world's major biotechnology markets, with annual sales of about ?10 000 million, accounting for 65% of the entire global antibiotics market. Enzymes have a wide variety of uses in essay cover, analytical procedures. Their specificity and potency allow both detection and on a cricket, amplification of a target analyte. ‘Wet chemistry’ enzyme-based assays for the detection and quantification of a variety of substances, including drugs, are widespread. Enzymes also play a key role in immunodiagnostics, often being used as the agent to amplify the signal—for example, in enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs). Within DNA-fingerprinting technology, the essay pages enzyme DNA polymerase plays a key role in the amplification of DNA molecules in case study, the polymerase chain reaction. However, ‘wet chemistry’ analytical methods are increasingly being replaced by the use of biosensors—that is, self-contained integrated devices which incorporate a biological recognition component (usually an immobilized enzyme) and an electrochemical detector (known as a transducer). Much of the technological development of biosensors has been motivated by good cover, the need to measure blood glucose levels.

In 2000, the World Health Organization estimated that over 170 million people had diabetes, and predicted that this figure will rise to over 360 million by 2030. In view of this, many companies have made significant investments in RD programmes that have led to the availability of a wide variety of glucose biosensor devices. In 1962, Leland Clark Jr coined the term ‘enzyme electrode’ to describe a device in which a traditional electrode could be modified to respond to other materials by the inclusion of a nearby enzyme layer. Good Thesis Statement Luther? Clark's ideas became a commercial reality in 1975 with the successful launch of the Yellow Springs Instruments (YSI) model 23A glucose analyser. This device incorporated glucose oxidase together with a peroxide-sensitive electrode to measure the hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) produced during the good essay cover following reaction: In this device, the rate of H 2 O 2 formation is a measure of the rate of the reaction, which depends on the concentration of glucose in solution, thus allowing the latter to be estimated. As was discussed earlier, in ib english part, enzyme-catalysed reactions the relationship between substrate concentration and reaction rate is not linear, but hyperbolic (as described by the Michaelis–Menten equation).

This is also true for the glucose oxidase within a biosensor. However, we may engineer a more linear relationship by ensuring that the enzyme is either behind or within a membrane through which the glucose must diffuse before it reacts with the enzyme. This means that the system becomes diffusionally, rather than kinetically, limited, and the response is then more linearly related to the concentration of glucose in cover pages, solution. Over the years the YSI model 23A glucose analyser has been replaced by essay describe personal characteristics, a range of much more advanced models. The current YSI model 2900 Series glucose analyser is shown in Figure 16. Good Pages? This instrument has a 96-sample rack that enables batches of essays, samples to be run, with the analysis of each sample taking less than a minute.

The instrument can measure the glucose content of whole blood, plasma or serum, and requires only 10 ?l of sample per analysis. The membrane-bound glucose oxidase typically only needs to be replaced every 3 weeks, thereby reducing the cost of analysis. These systems also offer advanced data-handling and cover, data-storage facilities. In addition, these instruments can be modified to analyse a wide variety of other substances of biological interest, simply by legal study, incorporating other oxidase enzymes into essay cover, the membrane (Table 8). To enable diabetic patients to take their own blood glucose measurements, small hand-held biosensors have also been developed, which are in fact technologically more advanced because the enzyme and transducer are more intimately linked on the sensor surface.

The first device of this type was launched in 1986 by Medisense, and was based on short essay on a, technology developed in the U.K. at Cranfield and Oxford Universities. The ExacTech blood glucose meter was the size and shape of a pen, and good essay cover, used disposable electrode strips. This device was followed by a credit card-style meter in 1989. Such devices again rely on glucose oxidase as the biological component, but do not measure the reaction rate via the production (and detection) of essay cricket match, H 2 O 2 . Instead they rely on direct measurement of the rate of electron flow from glucose to the electrode surface. The reactions that occur within this device may be summarized as follows: and at the electrode surface: where GO x -FAD represents the FAD redox centre of glucose oxidase in its oxidized form, and GO x -FADH 2 represents the reduced form.

Basically electrons are removed from the glucose molecules and essay cover pages, passed via the describe characteristics enzyme to the ferrocene mediator, which then donates them to the working electrode surface, resulting in the generation of an electrical current that is directly proportional to the rate of pages, oxidation of glucose, and thus proportional to the glucose concentration in legal case study, the sample. Medisense, whose only product was its blood glucose meter, was bought by Abbott Diagnostics in good, 1996, and Abbott-branded devices continued to use and essay characteristics, develop this technology for good, some time. In 1999, Therasense marketed a glucose meter that represented the next generation of sensing technology, and integrated the enzyme even more closely with the electrode. Originally developed by phd dissertation, Adam Heller at the University of Texas in the 1990s, wired-enzyme electrodes do not rely on pages, a soluble mediator such as the ferrocene used in thesis statement for martin luther king, the Medisense devices. Pages? Instead the enzyme is immobilized in essays about music piracy, an osmium-based polyvinyl imidazole hydrogel in good essay, which the electrons are passed from enzyme to electrode by short on a, a series of good, fixed electroactive osmium centres that shuttle the electrons onward in a process called ‘electron hopping.’ In 2004, Abbott Diagnostics purchased Therasense, and instruments such as the FreeStyle Freedom Lite meter range produced by essays about music, Abbott Diabetes Care (Figure 17) now incorporate this wired-enzyme technology. Devices of this type are highly amenable to miniaturization. Continuous measuring devices are becoming increasingly available, and may well revolutionize the essay cover control of certain disease conditions. For example, with regard to diabetes, devices such as the case study FreeStyle Navigator range from Abbott Diabetes Care use the same wired-enzyme technology as that described earlier, but now incorporate this into essay, a tiny filament about the 411 diameter of a thin hypodermic needle. This is inserted approximately 5 mm under the skin to measure the glucose level in the interstitial fluid that flows between the good essay pages cells. The unit is designed to legal study, remain in situ for up to 5 days, during which time it can measure the good cover pages glucose concentration every minute.

A wireless transmitter sends the glucose readings to a separate receiver anywhere within a 30-metre range, and statement luther king, this can then issue an early warning alarm to alert the user to a falling or rising glucose level in time for good essay pages, them to take appropriate action and avoid a hypoglycaemic or hyperglycaemic episode. In addition, experimental units have already been developed that link continuous glucose biosensor measurement systems with pumps capable of gradually dispensing insulin such that the diabetic condition is automatically and reliably controlled, thereby avoiding the traditional peaks and troughs in glucose levels that occur with conventional glucose measurement and the intermittent administration of insulin. Therefore, looking to the future, we may confidently expect to see the about music development of biosensor systems that can continuously monitor a range of good essay cover pages, physiologically important analytes and automatically dispense the required medication to alleviate the symptoms of a number of long-term chronic human illnesses. For the sake of conciseness, this guide has been limited to some of the basic principles of enzymology, together with an overview of the biotechnological applications of 1 essay, enzymes. It is good cover, important to phd dissertation assistance, understand the relationship between proteins and the nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) that provide the blueprint for the assembly of proteins within the essay cell. Genetic engineering is thus predominantly concerned with modifying the proteins that a cell contains, and genetic defects (in medicine) generally relate to the abnormalities that occur in the proteins within cells. Much of the molecular age of biochemistry is therefore very much focused on the study of the cell, its enzymes and other proteins, and statement, their functions. Abbreviations7-ADCA, 7-aminodesacetoxycephalosporanic acid; 6-APA, 6-aminopenicillanic acid; ATCase, aspartate transcarbamoylase; CSTR, continuous-flow stirred-tank reactor; CTP, cytidine triphosphate; DFP, diisopropyl fluorophosphate; EC, Enzyme Commission; ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; GUT, glucose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase; HFCS, high-fructose corn syrup; PBR, packed-bed reactor; PFK, phosphofructokinase; STR, stirred-tank reactor. This article is good pages, a reviewed, revised and updated version of the following ‘Biochemistry Across the School Curriculum’ (BASC) booklet: Teal A.R. Wymer P.E.O., 1995: Enzymes and their Role in Technology.

For further information and to provide feedback on this or any other Biochemical Society education resource, please contact education biochemistry.org . For further information on other Biochemical Society publications, please visit www.biochemistry.org/publications. This is an open access article published by Portland Press Limited and distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution Licence 3.0.

Free High School Student Resume Templates for essay Teens. If you’ve never made a resume before, it can seem more difficult than the ib english part, job search itself. Good. Fortunately, making a resume is essay personal as simple as following a format. Essay Pages. With some key information in 1 essay, the right order, anyone can create one. Your First Job Resume: What It Is and good cover Why You Need It. A resume is a one-page document that summarizes your experience, skills, and essay characteristics other information . The purpose is to show you’re a perfect candidate for essay cover the position you are applying for. It should be formal, professional, and relevant.

Resumes give potential employers a way to learn about applicants quickly and essays about music piracy easily, and they are your first step toward new job opportunities. An interview might also be needed to land the job, but a resume is good essay necessary to start the process. Resumes let employers quickly screen out job seekers who don’t have the right experience and qualifications. Assistance 411. A well-crafted resume that highlights your experience will set you apart from the competition. Even if you have little or no work experience yet, these guidelines will get you on good essay pages, track to having a great entry-level resume and on a cricket match all the opportunities that come with it. There are three basic resume formats to good essay choose from: chronological, functional, and thesis statement for martin luther combination. It helps to familiarize yourself with these options before deciding on the right resume template for good cover pages you.

This is one of the most common resume formats. Essay Personal. It lists your work history in reverse chronological order, starting with the most recent position. It is essay often headed with a “Career Objective” section. We will talk about legal study these sections in more detail later in this post. On a chronological resume you’ll also want to essay cover list your education in reverse chronological order, starting with the most recent school you attended or relevant course you’ve taken. This is phd dissertation assistance a common resume format. It’s easy for good cover employers to part scan a chronological resume quickly and get an good essay cover, idea of your experience. Essay. This kind of resume highlights your work history, so it’s great if you’ve had impressive employment opportunities. If you don’t have much work history, or your work history isn’t relevant to good essay cover pages the job you want, this type of resume may not be best for you. Prospective employers will throw your resume in the “No” pile if all they see is work that’s not related to the job they are looking to legal case study fill, or if your resume looks empty because you didn’t have much experience to list.

A functional resume format highlights other sections, like skills and activities, over work experience. This type of good pages, resume focuses on what you know or what you can do, rather than what you’ve done at legal study, specific jobs. It will probably still have some sort of work history section, but it will be placed at the bottom rather than at good essay cover, the top of the essay personal characteristics, page. Your work history might not be listed in chronological order on this type of resume. Pages. In fact, it might not have dates at legal, all, but be listed in order of relevance instead. This type of resume can be great if you have little or no conventional work experience. It can hide long gaps in between jobs, and can draw attention to your other skills or activities. Most employers will be accustomed to the chronological resume format.

They will likely know that the reason you chose this format is because you have less work experience or less consistent job history than other job seekers. But that doesn’t necessarily mean you’re a less desirable candidate. Like a functional resume, a combination resume puts your skills and activities first and foremost. However, this type of resume also lists your work experience in reverse chronological order. It just doesn’t put it near the top like a chronological resume does. This hybrid style gives a balance between promoting your skills and good essay cover your work history. For teens with work experience that’s impressive but short, this kind of resume is ideal. You can show off your work history, but also fill in more space by talking about your skills and other knowledge you have.

It’s also useful if the work history you have doesn’t quite fit with the job you’re looking for. With a combination resume, you can put the skills that are relevant to your ideal job first, but still give details about your past work experience. Making a combination resume can feel overwhelming, since it uses so much information. Be careful to use only the most relevant information so it doesn’t become cluttered or too wordy. How to Create a Good High School Student Resume. Your resume always needs to include your name and contact information. List your name, phone number, email address, and good for martin luther king city at the top of your resume. You don’t need to include your full street address, but you can if you’d like.

Everything else can be adjusted to essay cover fit your unique experience. For example, your resume could include any of the following: Work Experience or Work History Education Career Objective or Summary Professional Skills or Other Skills Activities Hobbies and Interests Achievements, Awards, and Honors References. Each of legal case study, these sections will consist of a heading in bold or slightly larger font, followed by cover details about part that section. For example, under the “Education” heading, you might list the schools you’ve attended and the subjects you focused on.

Remember, you probably won’t use all of cover pages, these headings. Just pick the ones that are most relevant to you and the job you’re seeking. Every section requires a slightly different approach. Let’s break it down and short essay cricket see how it works. This can be a difficult section to tackle on a teen resume, since you might not have any work experience yet.

Don’t worry though. Good Essay. Everyone was in essay describe personal, the same situation when they were looking for their first job! If you have no work experience, you can leave this section out and focus on the other sections. If you do have official work experience, it’s important to mention it in essay cover, this section, especially if it is a job similar to the one you are applying for. Even if you weren’t officially employed, you probably have more work experience to about piracy put on your resume than you think.

Part-time work like babysitting, lawn mowing, tutoring, and even volunteer experience or community service all count as good examples of work experience on a teen resume. Under the “Work Experience” heading, list the name of the good cover pages, company you worked for, your job title, and legal case study dates of employment. Cover. You should also list your responsibilities, duties, and piracy accomplishments. That way, it’s clear what kind of experience you gained. Use two or three bullet points to good list your responsibilities and ib english 1 essay duties for each job. See our sample high school student resume templates below for pages real-world examples of work experience sections. In the “Education” section, state the about music piracy, high school you attended or presently attend and the years you were there or the date you expect to good cover pages graduate. For example:

Crescent High School – Arlington, Virginia. Expected graduation date: May 2017. If there are classes you’ve taken that are relevant to the job you want, you can list that relevant coursework here. You can mention your future education plans too. Good Thesis Statement Luther. For example: I have been accepted to Chicago State University, and good essay I am planning to major in business law I will be taking my AP classes next month to prepare for college I will begin attending Chicago State University this fall. The “Career Objective” section shows what kind of job you’re looking for. It consists of one or two sentences near the top of your resume that describe your desired job.

For example: Offer excellent hostess service in 1 essay, a busy local restaurant Apply my computer skills to practical work Provide quality delivery for local food business. You can also extend your objective statement into cover, a summary. A summary is a short paragraph that summarizes your experience and key skills. For example: I am an energetic, enthusiastic, and legal active individual with a strong knowledge of grocery items and their use by people from different economic and social backgrounds. I have a business mindset and am willing to good essay apply these skills as a grocery store employee. This section might seem unnecessary, but it can actually be very helpful to potential employers. Phd Dissertation Assistance. It gives you a chance to describe yourself and your goals in good cover pages, your own words.

It can also be useful when you don’t have much concrete work experience, but do have skills that potential employers should know about. Make sure the cricket match, objective or summary is cover pages short, clear, and professional. Professional Skills or Other Skills. You likely have skills that could be relevant to a particular position you are applying for. These can be listed under “Professional Skills.” Make sure the skills are relevant to good thesis statement for martin luther king the job you want.

If you are applying for a gardener job, no need to essay mention “Ability to handle cash register”, since that skill doesn’t apply to that job. But you might mention, “Ability to use lawn mower and gardening tools safely.” If you have no work experience, this section can help demonstrate whether you are a good fit for the position. You can also list skills that come from study your school or hobbies under “Other Skills.” Make sure they’re still related in some way to what potential employers are looking for. What are some key skills you might list? Creativity Leadership Adaptability Flexibility Positivity Problem-solving Communication Independence Self-motivation Ability to work under pressure.

This section gives an essay, employer insight into 411, your character and interests. It might even tie into the “Skills” section. Think of good essay, extracurricular activities, sports, and clubs you have participated in. Phd Dissertation 411. Taking a lead role in a school play? You are probably creative. Playing football? You might be a good team player. These are qualities that employers are looking for. Cover Pages. Some examples of school activities that could look good on a resume include:

Sports : playing sports in a association or for fun, outdoor activities, fitness training, taking sport lessons, coaching. Phd Dissertation 411. Culture : creating art works, shows, plays, films, games, singing or dancing, DIY projects, creative workshops. Community : raising donations for various organizations or humanitarian causes, organizing events, helping kids, seniors, animals, or the good cover pages, environment, promoting community enhancements. Just like with skills, only list relevant activities here. Write down the activity, dates, and your role/position.

For example: West River Hospital, volunteer, summer 2012 Crescent High School Soccer Team, captain, 2005 – 2013 Stage Drama Festival, lead role, summer 2011. If your resume is short on work experience, you can list more details about your activities to phd dissertation assistance 411 show what you gained from them. You might use bullet points to good essay cover write what your responsibilities were or what skills you used in these activities. This section is similar to activities, as it tells an employer more about your character. Simply make a list of hobbies that might be of ib english part 1 essay, interest to potential employers.

For example: Reading books Playing tennis Painting and sculpture. It’s great to mention major achievements and awards you’ve earned at school or in your activities. Good Cover Pages. Prospective employers like to case study see accomplishments that show commitment and essay cover pages hard work. For example: Student of the ib english 1 essay, Month, March 2013 Perfect Attendance Award, September 2012 Honor Roll, fall 2012. A reference should be someone who can vouch for good cover pages your knowledge and skills, or who can confirm your work experience. Your teachers, coaches, or former employers can be good references. Listing your friends or family as references is not recommended, but can be acceptable if you worked for about them. Remember that you must ask a person to serve as a reference before you can list them as one.

Many people simply write “References Available on cover, Request” at the bottom of their resumes. If you do this, make sure you actually have those references available in case a prospective employer requests them. However, if you have limited experience to put on ib english 1 essay, your resume, you might want to list the names and good pages contact information of your references on your resume. Free High School Student Resume Examples. These teen resume samples will make getting started easy.

There are general purpose high school student resume templates, as well as resumes for 1 essay specific work experience. These samples will guide you with a professional resume format and a basic idea of what to cover pages write. We also have High School Graduate Resumes and other professional resume templates. Creative babysitter resume sample with a summary, education, related and essays about music personal skills, hobbies, and good references examples. Size: 183 B Downloads: 6267 Filename: babysitter-cv-template-sample.docx Uploaded: 2013-07-04 06:21:00 / 3136.

Generic design with sample content (skills, knowledge) for a position in good thesis statement luther, a fast food industry. Size: 183 B Downloads: 7437 Filename: fast-food-employee-cv.docx Uploaded: 2013-07-04 06:34:00 / 3138. Basic design and common content for any type of position. Size: 183 B Downloads: 27350 Filename: geneal-purpose-high-school-resume.docx Uploaded: 2013-07-04 06:36:00 / 3140. Another multi-purpose sample, with blue header theme. Good Essay Cover Pages. Includes customer work and essay match volunteer experience.

Size: 183 B Downloads: 18038 Filename: teenager-cv-sample.docx Uploaded: 2013-07-04 06:38:00 / 3142. Sample for essay cover pages position in gardening or landscape. Creative design theme to music attract attention. Size: 183 B Downloads: 3046 Filename: lawn-care-gardening-job-application.docx Uploaded: 2013-07-04 06:39:00 / 3144. Resume sample for students who would like to promote tutoring services to other students or student#039;s parents.

Size: 183 B Downloads: 4214 Filename: student-tutor-cv-sample.docx Uploaded: 2013-07-04 06:41:00 / 3146. Generic resume sample for essay part-time grocery store job. Legal Study. Can be easily modified for similar positions in different stores. Size: 183 B Downloads: 6589 Filename: grocery-store-application.docx Uploaded: 2013-07-04 06:42:00 / 3148. Elegant resume for server or host position in a restaurant.

Can also be used for kitchen help, cook help, busser, etc. Size: 183 B Downloads: 4310 Filename: waitress-or-hostess-job.docx Uploaded: 2013-07-04 06:44:00 / 3150. Sample teen resume for full-time or part-time volunteer job for essay cover pages a candidate with previous volunteer work. Size: 183 B Downloads: 4676 Filename: volunteer-position-application.docx Uploaded: 2013-07-04 06:45:00 / 3152. Sample resume for part-time position in warehouse. Size: 183 B Downloads: 5313 Filename: warehouse-position.docx Uploaded: 2013-07-04 06:47:00 / 3154. Sample resume for an apprentice welder and assisting in different welding projects. Size: 183 B Downloads: 3777 Filename: welder-helper-job.docx Uploaded: 2013-07-04 06:48:00 / 3156.

Professional sample for a food delivery position. Can be easily modified for a different position in the food industry. Size: 183 B Downloads: 26441 Filename: food-industry-position.docx Uploaded: 2013-07-04 06:17:00 / 3134. 855.213.0348 | MON-FRI 8A-8P, SAT 8A-5P, SUN 10A-6P CST. 2017 Bold Limited.

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