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paraguay essay Albrecht Glatzle and law school writing, Dieter Stosiek. Paraguay is angel neon evangelion, a landlocked Central South American country (Figures 1 and 2) which has common frontiers with Argentina (to the essay writing south and west), Brazil (east) and Bolivia (north). The total land area is 406,752 square km. The country is divided in two major geographical regions, with distinct topography and jack to build a fire, geology, by the south-flowing Paraguay River. Whereas the eastern region (Oriental) with 159,827 square km has an undulating landscape of rolling hills with abundant rainfall (up to essay 1,700 mm/year), the western part (Region Occidental or Chaco) is an extensive semi-arid to university essay 2013 sub-humid alluvial plain with 246,925 square km (AHK 1999). Paraguay#146;s population was estimated to be 5,734,139 in July 2001 and 6,506,464 in July 2006 (World Factbook 2006, July 2006 est.), of which about law school essay writing 98 percent are in university essay prompts 2013, the eastern sector; the 2006 estimated growth rate was 2.45%. Law School Essay Service! More than 50 percent of the population is considered urban. Agriculture and research papers on economic value added, Forestry account for 26 percent of GDP and 90 percent of essay writing service exports (70 percent of which goes into the neighbouring MERCOSUR [Southern Cone Common Market] countries). Total GDP is 8,273,000,000 US $. The contribution of livestock to the GDP is 8 percent (MAG 1996). Note: ------------ boundary of Paraguay.

Figure 1: Biogeographic Provinces of South America and Location of Paraguay. Angel Genesis Evangelion! Adapted from Tarso Zuquim and Lima Serrano (1997) Politically, the country is divided into 17 Departments of which the three largest ones are part of the Chaco, whereas the 14 most populated ones belong to the Region Oriental (Figure 3). Land tenure is unbalanced. More than 80 percent of the farmers are small holders with properties of law school service less than 20 hectares, but they account for less than seven percent of the total farming area, whereas farms larger than 1,000 hectares (1 percent of to build essay farms) account for 77 percent of the total farm land (GTZ 1994). There are reports of farm occupations, by a growing number of landless campesinos, particularly in law school essay service, the Oriental sector of the country. Figure 2: Map of Paraguay (from World Factbook 2006 Website) Figure 3: Republic of Paraguay: Political Subdivision, Departamentos (GTZ 1994)

Landforms. Within the boston essay prompts 2013 two main physiographic zones, the Chaco Paraguayo and the oriental region, there are further subdivisions to be featured (Figure 4): A) The Chaco Paraguayo which comprises about 60 percent of the country, is an alluvial plain with sediments from the Andes, naturally limited to the east by the Rio Paraguay and to the south and south-west by law school essay writing the Rio Pilcomayo. Altitudes range between 380 m in the north-west and 80 m in the south-east, where the Paraguay and no 10 essay, Pilcomayo Rivers join, a distance of 750 km (Ramella and Spichiger 1989). Mereles et al. (1992) distinguish two major zones of the Chaco: the Humid Chaco (Bajo Chaco), a plain liable to service flooding, influenced by the Paraguay and Pilcomayo Rivers (annual rainfall 900 to 1300 mm); the Dry Chaco (Chaco Boreal) with an annual rainfall range of 400 to 900 mm, which is further subdivided into 3 major sub regions (Glatzle 1999): The Central Chaco is research papers on economic added, derived from a former inland delta with a mosaic of so called campos (old riverbeds with coarse sandy sediments) which contrast with the monte areas with fine textured soils (formerly temporarily inundated by flooding of the ancient river system). Campos areas comprise 15 percent of this region. Most of the Northern Chaco is more uniform and is comparable with the monte system of the Central Chaco. Sand dune areas in the far north-west of the Paraguayan Chaco are alluvial deposits remodelled by essay winds. B) Eastern Paraguay (Oriental Region) comprises 40 percent of the country. Altitudes range from above 600 m in federalist essay, the north-eastern corner (Pedro Juan Caballero) and 55 m in the south-west (Pilar). The Oriental sector of Paraguay is a rather humid region of rolling hills with three major subdivisions (Bertoni and essay writing service, Gorham 1973): The Rio Paraguay Valley is an undulating lowland with plains, parts of which are liable to population questions flooding and with a few hills or strings of hills.

Almost half of Paraguay#146;s population live here, where the law school service capital Asuncion is located. The Central Plateau with many low hills forms the continental divide between the watersheds of the Rio Paraguay and the Rio Alto Parana. The Alto Parana Valley is an undulating plain, rising to the west. As annual rainfall is high, this zone has many large and essay thomas, small watercourses, all draining to law school essay writing the Rio Alto Parana, which runs through a deep gorge and is dammed as the Itaipu reservoir which powers the world#146;s biggest electrical power plant. Figure 4: Paraguay: Physiographic Zones (adapted from Bertoni and Gorham 1973) Soils. The Paraguayan Chaco is dominated by geologically relatively young eutric cambisols and orthic luvisols with loamy textures (BGR 2001). Essay! Sub-dominant are eutric regosols and poorly developed arenosols (in the sand dune area). Poorly drained eutric gleysols and planosols are found in inclusions of the Central Chaco (so called water-camps with temporary water logging) and in the inundated areas of the Humid Chaco. As the distance from the Andes increases, soils tend to become finer in texture.

The dominating soils in the Chaco have no major limitations in law school, soil fertility, there are however big differences in water availability (drought and excess of water) over neon genesis long periods (Fatecha 1989). Soil pH ranges from mildly acid to mildly alkaline. The horizons are deep with relatively high salinity. From north-east to south-west, right across the Paraguayan Chaco, there is law school writing, a belt of jack essay about 500 km long and law school writing service, 50 to 75 km wide with a shallow saline ground water table. This transitional zone between the Dry and Humid Chaco is prone to dry land salinity due to capillary ascension and salt enrichment at the soil surface, producing orthic solonetz and solonchaks in the discharge area of saline ground water. In eastern Paraguay, ferric acrisols with sandy to loamy texture are the main groups of soils in university prompts, the rolling hills (Central Plateau).

In contrast to the Chaco with greyish soils, for the Oriental Region a reddish soil colour is essay service, typical, due to sesquioxide formation in a rather humid environment. Population Questions! As most bedrocks are acidic (granite, sandstone, schists, gneiss), soils also are almost consistently acid. The depth of the soil profile and also the pedogenetic stage depends largely on its position in the relief of the landscape. Essay! Seasonally swampy, lower-lying areas in the Rio Paraguay Valley, particularly in the south-western corner (vicinity of jack to build Pilar) produce soils with hydromorphic properties (planosols). Intensively cropped basalt-derived ferric luvisols are the dominant group in the Alto Parana Valley. Generally, the soils in the Oriental sector of law school service Paraguay are considered to have high to medium potential for angel neon rainfed crop production (two crops a year), so long as there are no limitations of topography (steep slopes) or waterlogging in law school, temporarily flooded areas.

Contrary to the Chaco, the region has been settled and farmed for several centuries and little of the essay original vegetation remains undisturbed. 3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES. There is law school essay writing, a pronounced rainfall gradient right across Paraguay. Mean annual rainfall increases from about 400 mm in the north-west to 2013 1,700 mm in the south-east (Sanchez 1973, Figure 5). In the writing service Chaco, about 80 percent falls in summer, whereas in the south-east corner mean monthly rainfall is more equally distributed, with a slight depression in the driest months, July and federalist no 10 essay, August. The growing season lasts from law school October to questions March in the Chaco. Typical crops are sorghum, cotton and groundnuts. In eastern Paraguay, arable lands are often cropped twice a year under rainfed conditions, with soybean, cotton or maize, followed by a winter crop, such as temperate cereals. Mean annual temperatures vary from 25.9 0 C in the north (Bahia Negra) to 21.4 0 C in the north-eastern corner of the oriental region (Pedro Juan Caballero).

Summers are hot, even very hot. Therefore, potential evapotranspiration reaches values up to 2100 mm (Verma 1982). Absolute maxima range from 40.8 0 C (Encarnacion) to 44.0 0 C (Mariscal Estigarribia). In winter, night frosts (to an absolute minimum temperature of - 6.0 0 C) occur, except in law school essay writing service, the extreme north east. Aerial parts of tropical grasses are generally burnt off by frost. This can produce a forage shortage, when standing hay is spoiled by rain after frost (Glatzle 1999). Temperature changes may be sudden (15 to 20 degrees in a few hours with the jack to build a fire essay onset of a storm), as prevailing winds switch from northerly to southerly, since there are no significant east west mountain barriers to retain winds.

Wind speed exceeds 6 m/s for 14 percent of the law school writing year, resulting in wind erosion of federalist essay cleared, bare land (Hacker et al . 1996). In short, Paraguay has a subtropical continental climate dominated by summer rainfall. It falls within the C climates of essay writing Koppen#146;s classification (Eidt 1969). Figure 5: Paraguay (Chaco) : Rainfall and to build a fire, Temperature. Vegetation. The dominant vegetation formations are xeromorphic, thorny, dry deciduous forests in writing, the Chaco and subtropical rainforests in the East. Dominant trees in the Dry Chaco are Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco, Chorisia insignis and Schinopsis quebracho-colorado . Among the shrubs, various Prosopis spp ., Acacia spp ., Capparis spp., Ruprechtia triflora and essay thomas king, Cercidium praecox are dominant on the monte type soils. In contrast, the sandy campos, along the law school service ancient riverbeds, are characterised by a savanna-like open woodland with the dominant trees being Astronium fraxinifolium, Schinopsis heterophylla, Tabebuia caraiba and Jacaranda mimosifolia . The herbaceous layer is predominantly grass species Elyonurus muticus . Boston University Essay 2013! In the past, fires, frequently lit by indigenous people, helped to keep the vegetation open (Hacker et al. 1996). Sand dunes in the north-western Chaco are stabilized by natural vegetation. Their pronounced topography differs markedly from the flat, sandy campos in law school service, the Central Chaco, but their savanna-like vegetation is very similar.

To the south and east, depressions with seasonal waterlogging (water-camps) become more frequent. Here, the trees Prosopis ruscifolia, Calycophyllum multiflorum and Bulnesia sarmienti indicate cracking clay soils. The centre of the seasonal ponds, however, have no woody vegetation. An edaphic grassland with species tolerant of university 2013 waterlogging like Hemarthria altissima, Leersia hexandra and Paspalum spp . covers the ground. In the essay writing humid Chaco, the vegetation is characterised by a mosaic with the irregular distribution of wetlands. The lower areas are seasonally waterlogged savannas with a palm ( Copernicia alba ) and grasses like those in the water-camps of the to build Central Chaco, whereas drier areas typically support a tall Anadenanthera colubrina forest (Ramella and Spichiger 1989). In the Oriental Region, the littoral of the Rio Paraguay Valley resembles the essay writing Entre Rios Formations of Argentina with open swampy grasslands and marshes.

This region is suitable for cattle raising. The predominantly sandy soils of the Central Plateau and borders thomas king, its outskirts once supported a dense forest, rich in quality and law school essay writing service, variety of hardwood species (e.g. Amburana cearensis, Aspidosperma polyneuron, Pterogyne nitens, Peltophorum dubium ) which were progressively cleared. Essay King! Besides timber species there are yerba mate ( Ilex paraguariensis ) and the tung-oil trees ( Aleurites fordii ) as well as the writing coco-palm ( Acrocomia totai ) grown in pure plantations or mixed cropping systems. The valleys are dominated by grasslands which are, however, nowadays successively converted into arable lands with zero-tillage technology. To Build A Fire Essay! The undulating plain of the Alto Parana Valley was also once covered by service species-rich subtropical forest, much of which has been converted in recent years to intensively cropped arable lands (particularly for soy bean and temperate cereals). 4. Essay! RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS. There are about essay service 10,000,000 head of cattle, 400,000 sheep, 350,000 horses, 120,000 goats plus 1,800,000 pigs and some 15,000,000 poultry in Paraguay (DCEA 2000).

Figures in boston university essay 2013, FAOSTAT for 2005 are 9.6M cattle; 500,000 sheep; 360,000 horses; 155,000 goats; 1.6M pigs and 17.9M poultry (FAO, 2006). Hence, cattle raising for law school essay writing service meat and milk is by far the most important livestock sector. No 10! Livestock numbers are shown in Table 1. There are about 310,000 individual producers (99 percent) or companies (1 percent) on the 24,000,000 hectares of useful land (arable and grazing). Law School Writing Service! On average there are 5.3 members per producer family. Table 1. Livestock numbers (FAO databases, 2006) Poultry nos (,000,000) Land and Livestock Tenure.

With respect to land and livestock tenure systems, land ownership is unbalanced. Farms between 1 and 20 hectares own less than 15 percent of the livestock and represent more than 70 percent of all producers / producer families. On the other hand, the producer class with more than 1000 hectares (1 percent of the farms) owns 77 percent of the farm land and 60 percent of the boston university essay livestock population (Table 2). About 25 percent of Paraguay#146;s producers are involved exclusively in crop production. Of the rest, 89 percent run mixed farms (Molas et al. 1996), combining, meat or milk production and crops, to diversify activities and writing, minimize risk. The remaining 11 percent are exclusively livestock producers. Smallholders are usually subsistence oriented and labour intensive with limited use of technology and external inputs. However, farms at all production levels are commercially orientated, obviously with increasing market orientation, as the farm size gets bigger. Farms over 1,000 hectares contribute more than three quarters of the agricultural exports of the country (GTZ 1994).

Table 2: Land tenure system in Paraguay as analysed by most recent agricultural census (MAG 1992) Number of value farms. Rel. no. of service farms ( %) per class. Total area (1000 ha) Rel. no. of no 10 total ha (%) per class. Rel. no. of cattle (%) per class. 1000 to 5000 ha. 5000 to 10.000 ha. The most striking difference between farming systems in eastern Paraguay and the Chaco is average farm size and law school service, average stock number per farm (Table 23). Whereas in the sparsely populated Chaco (1 inhabitant per research on economic value 2 sq. km) large farms (up to 50,000 ha) predominantly produce beef, in essay writing, the more densely populated Oriental Region (32 inhabitants per sq. km) farm size is much smaller and farms are much more oriented to mixed farming. No 10 Essay! Beef and law school writing service, milk production is highly commercialised, whereas small ruminants and pigs are predominantly kept for subsistence or have only local commercial importance (no exports).

Horses are almost exclusively working animals, particularly for cattle herd handling. Table 3: Distinctive characteristics of farms in the Oriental Region and the Chaco. (MAG 1992 and jack to build, DCEA 2000) Number of law school essay farms. Total number of papers value added cattle. Average farm size. Relative number of essay service farms with. Avg. Boston University! no. of writing service cattle per farm. There is practically no permanent housing of ruminants.

Steer fattening in feedlots has shown marginal profitability. Animals are ranched on natural or improved pastures. Even in intensive dairy systems milking cows gain part of their feeding requirements on pastures near milking pens. Tethering is common among smallholders and landless campesinos, otherwise they keep their animals on research on economic value added, public land between the fences at writing service, both sides of angel thesis neon public roads. Stocking densities on service, range, bush land and sown pastures vary from about 10 (Alto Paraguay) to 0,2 ha (Central Department) per head of cattle, depending on population essay, the agro-ecological conditions and feed and law school writing, supplement availability. Paraguay has a multicultural rural population with strong minorities (native Indians of at least eight different ethnicities and university prompts 2013, languages, groups of settlers of Brazilian, German or Japanese origin and foreign investors) which differ considerably in their production systems, production levels and essay writing service, organizational structures.

While the angel thesis neon genesis evangelion native Indians live predominantly by subsistence agriculture on communally owned land, most of them showing little affinity for animal husbandry, typical Paraguayan campesinos and foreign groups of settlers generally apply mixed farming systems on privately owned land, being predominantly market oriented. Foreign investors, representing a fairly high proportion in the Chaco (Table 3), are exclusively commercially oriented and frequently grow monocultures, such as beef, soy bean or cotton. The organizational structure of essay Paraguayan campesinos and foreign investors is relatively weak. However almost all emigrant settlers communities are organised into essay, marketing co-operatives. Among them are so called colonies of Japanese and Mennonites (a religious community of law school writing German origin which settled in the Chaco and in jack, eastern Paraguay mainly in law school essay, the first half of the past century). Cruel Evangelion! These colonies exert a strong impact on national markets in special sectors such as dairy products, vegetables and yerba mate. Herd Productivity and Breeds.

Beef is law school service, commonly produced in extensive systems on the 165,000 square km of native pastures and to build a fire, grazed bush land plus 33,000 square km of cultivated pastures. Main capital investments refer to fencing, establishment of herd handling facilities, construction of dams or so called Tajamares (basins for law school writing service rain water collection) and pasture establishment and maintenance. Traditionally, there was little veterinary care and infrequent herd mustering, no seasonal bull service, no weaning control and little genetic improvement. Cruel Thesis Neon Genesis Evangelion! Therefore, traditional herd productivity is low compared to production figures which are regularly achieved nowadays by writing a growing number of population essay questions cattle farmers (Table 4). Table 4: Comparison of traditional and present production parameters of beef cattle herds and grazing lands in the Chaco (Glatzle, 1999) From the most important production parameters. Calving rate ( percent) Mortality calves ( percent), first year. Mortality adults ( percent)

Fattening period till 450 kg LW (months) Proportion of cows in writing service, the herd ( percent) . To Build! result in the following production indices: Extraction rate ( percent) Energy efficiency (kg LW GJ -1 ME) Liveweight production (kg LW ha -1 a -1 ) from ME consumed: 2.5 GJ ME ha -1 a -1 (native bushland)

25 GJ de ME ha -1 a -1 (sown pasture) The energy efficiency of forage was modelled on the basis of the production parameters of both traditional and modern systems. The improved herd productivity results in almost twice as much liveweight being produced from a unit of fodder energy consumed. Law School Essay! Moreover, up to a tenfold rise in liveweight production per area (across the whole herd) is achieved by improving the angel thesis forage base. Hence, improved pasture establishment results in a better land use efficiency (Table 4) as long as the production system is ecologically compatible.

More efficient beef production technologies are increasingly adopted by cattle farmers, as indicated by an increase by 66 percent of the nation-wide extraction rate in the past 20 years (Table 6). As far as the milk sector is concerned, 40 percent of the farms own milking cows (in the average 3.6 per farm). Essay Writing! Only part of them (estimated at 25 percent) have access to milk collection and jack essay, processing systems. Essay! The remaining 75 percent are either subsistence oriented or depend on thomas king, local markets for fresh milk or home made cheese. There is a big variation of production levels, taking into account all (not only the commercial) milk producers. Whereas the nation-wide average production parameters are poor, specialised commercial milk producers achieve remarkably high production levels (Table 5) applying high technology, and covering up to 75 percent of the daily feed requirements with concentrates and silages, in order to raise milk yields and to achieve a more balanced production across the seasons.

Table 5: Milk production parameters in law school essay, Paraguay comparing the national average with data from a commercial farm and a Mennonite co-operative (Molas et al . Federalist No 10 Essay! 1996) Heifer age at first service (months) Calving interval (days) Lactation period (days) Average production (kg milk/cow/year) The Criollio breed, derived from Spanish and later British cattle importations, is a well adapted, small framed and robust, double purpose breed, highly fertile but otherwise low in production. This traditional breed forms about 70 percent of the Paraguayan cattle population (MAG 1992). However, an increasing proportion of commercial beef cattle farms are replacing Criollo by Zebu types, such as Nellore and Brahman.

Frequently a high level of Zebu-genes is maintained in the herds, served by bulls of British (Angus, Hereford) or European continental (Gelbvieh, Fleckvieh, Limousine) breeds in order to produce a fast growing, environmentally adapted and resistant industrial cross. Law School! In commercial dairying, almost exclusively Holstein Friesian genes are incorporated by substitution crossing. In addition some hardy dual purpose breeds, such as Santa Gertrudis or Brown Swiss are kept. Artificial insemination is practised within well organized co-operatives or on very big farms. Production, Marketing and Consumption of Animal Products. Since the early nineteen-eighties the cattle population grew by about 50 percent from approx. 6,500,000 to essay borders thomas king almost 10,000,000 (MAG 1992 and DCEA 2000). In the same period, beef and milk production more than doubled, and indicators of production levels, such as average extraction rate of slaughter animals and law school essay, milk yields per boston university essay prompts 2013 milking cow, increased by about 65 percent and writing service, 25 percent respectively (Table 6).

These higher production levels can be attributed to better herd handling, improved veterinary care and the use of adapted and productive breeds, but also to essay borders the expansion of the law school area sown to questions improved pastures. Moreover the amount of agro-industrial by-products available increased considerably in the past two decades, particularly in medium to large scale dairy farms. In 2000, total agricultural imports reached a value of US$ 383,241,000 and exports a value of essay US$ 647,699,000 (FAO 2005) by 2003 figures were US$ 207.7 for imports and US$ 1.02 billion for exports. Net beef exports accounted for 4 to 9 percent of the total beef production in the past years (Table 6). Beef exports vary from university 2013 year to year and depend very much on the outbreaks of service Foot and Mouth Disease and essay borders thomas, a positive immunological status of the animals due to compulsory vaccinations; meat exports beyond South America are insignificant. Beef imports are negligible, like imports and law school essay writing, exports of other meats.

Almost all wool and hides are processed locally or discarded. There is only commercial milk production where an efficient and reliable collection system and a processing plant have been built up. This is the case in essay questions, the Central Department (around the capital Asuncion) with about 1,000,000 inhabitants, in the Boqueron and Presidente Hayes Departments (Chaco) and the Departments Caaguazu and Alto Parana (Oriental Region). Insignificant amounts of dairy products are exported since national production does not cover consumption. Law School Writing Service! Imported milk equivalents (predominantly from Argentina) account in recent years for 7 to 13 percent of the on economic value added national production of commercialised milk (Table 6). More than half of the meat consumed is beef. As stated in Table 6, total meat consumption is high in service, Paraguay. On the other hand the supply of processed milk is unsatisfactory (less than 2/3 of the population questions 150 kg/head/yr. recommended by the FAO). Table 6: Paraguay statistics of writing production, exports and consumption of federalist no 10 animal products and important agro-industrial by-products used as animal feeds (FAO 2006) (percent cattle slaughtered) 1. Live cattle net export.

Net beef export. (1000 t) incl. offal. Mutton and goat meat production (1000 t) Pig meat production. Poultry meat production. Production of cattle hides. Milk production 2. Milk production 2. per milking cow (kg/yr.) Net milk product imports. (1000 kg milk equiv.)

Bovine meat supply. Total meat supply. Milk supply (kg/cap/yr.) Agro-industrial by-products for concentrates: 1 Sources: MAG (1992), DCEA (2000) and FAO (2006) 2 Only commercialised milk. 3 Bran yield: about 25 percent of wheat production - wheat exports. 4 Seed cakes (production - exports) of soy bean, cotton, sunflower and groundnuts. The main forage resource for ruminant livestock is natural pasture, cultivated pastures, and native bush . Law School Essay Service! The total area dedicated to livestock production is 19,900,000 ha which are distributed in the Oriental and the Occidental Regions as shown in university essay prompts, Table 7. Table 7: Areas (millions of hectares) of native and law school essay writing service, cultivated pastures and extensively grazed bush land in boston essay prompts, Paraguay (Molas et al . 1996)

Native Grazing Resources in Eastern Paraguay. Most of the grazing lands in the Oriental Region are marginal for agriculture due to natural constraints such as poor drainage, shallow soils, and rocky soil . Basically there are two types of essay writing native pastures in Eastern Paraguay. Lowland grazing (Praderas Bajas): grazing lands on hydromorphic, periodically waterlogged and even swampy soils, mostly on the banks of rivers (particularly Rio Paraguay). However, there are also extended stretches of plains with hydromorphic planosols with an impermeable clayey subsoil towards the central Oriental Region along riverain zones. Within these grazing lands, the dominant herbaceous species are large tussock grasses generally with low palatability and nutritive value Sorghastrum agrostoides, Panicum prionitis, Andropogon lateralis , and A. condensatus , and grasses of low growth habit, such as Andropogon selloanus, Leersia hexandra, Luziola peruviana, Hymenachne amplexicaulis, Panicum millioides, Paspalum almum, Hemarthria altissima, Rottboellia selloana, Paspalum notatum, Axonopus compressus, A. affinis , and Paspalum plicatulum , all considered as highly palatable and nutritive. Moreover, herbaceous legumes such as Desmodium canum, Aeschynomene americana, Macroptilium lathyroides and Arachis spp . are valuable components commonly found in the lowlands of the Oriental Region.

Hillside grazing (Praderas Altas): These are grazing lands in the rolling hills of questions eastern Paraguay, predominantly at sites, sub-optimal for cropping in the Central Plateau and the Alto Parana Valley. Though generally not cultivated, native hillside grazing lands developed under human influence in forest clearings. Essay! Most of them maintain the aspect of a savanna or open woodland with varying densities of trees (even the planted coco-palm Acrocomia totai ). In the Central Plateau, grazing lands are often restricted to sandy soils with rocky outcrops (granite, sandstone, schist) and of limited fertility (high acidity, high aluminium and to build a fire essay, low phosphorous contents). Service! In the a fire essay Alto Parana Valley, fertility characteristics of the basaltic soils are better, however, grazing lands frequently present slopes marginal for agriculture. The most important indigenous forage grasses of hillside grazing lands are Paspalum notatum, Axonopus affinis, A. Essay! compressus, Paspalum plicatulum and Andropogon lateralis . Common valuable native legumes are Chamaecrista rotundifolia, Stylosanthes guianensis, Arachis spp . , and Alysicarpus sp . . Among the grasses of low stock acceptability are Imperata brasilensis and Aristida spp . Research Value! . Weedy dicotyledoneous species commonly found are Vernonia chamaedrys, Baccharis sp ., Psidium araca, Butia yatay and Campomanesia obversa . Native Grazing Resources of the law school Chaco Region. The Occidental (Chaco) Region is an extended alluvial plain with a gradient of rainfall and soil texture from no 10 north-west to law school south-east (more rain and federalist no 10 essay, finer texture as the distance from the Andes Mountains increases). The agro-ecological conditions are good for permanent pastures.

However cropping faces some limitations and risks from the writing quantity and distribution of rainfall (Dry Chaco) and temporary waterlogging (Humid Chaco) respectively (Figure 4). The native grazing resources in the two major physiographic sub regions of the Chaco can be described as follows: The Humid Chaco (Bajo Chaco) : The grazing lands of the Humid Chaco are predominantly palm savannas with Copernicia alba on poorly drained, hydromorphic gleysols and planosols. The palm Copernicia tolerates fires and temporary waterlogging. It is found in densities of up to 100 trunks per no 10 essay hectare and its spread is law school essay writing, promoted by livestock (Degen 1996). These natural grazing lands contain many grasses of medium to high nutritive value and population questions, palatability, such as Leersia hexandra, Hemarthria altissima, Panicum elephantipes, Diplachne uninervia, Hymenachne amplexicaulis, Paspalum lividum, P. alcalinum, P. almum, Cynodon dactylon, Pennisetum nervosum and Eriochloa montevidensis . Frequently found herbaceous legumes are Desmodium canum, Aeschynomene americana, A. denticulata, Desmanthus virgatus, Dolichopsis paraguariensis and essay service, Macroptilium lathyroides . Essay King! Tussock grasses with rather low palatability are Sorghastrum agrostoides, Paspalum paniculatum, P. Law School Essay Service! plicatulum and P. conspersum. Reported carrying capacities are one American Livestock Unit (454 kg LW) per 2 to 4 ha (Ramirez and Laneri 1989). Besides mechanical or chemical treatments or burning of the shrubby weeds ( Acacia curvifructa, Prosopis ruscifolia and Geoffroea decorticans, and Tessaria dodoneaefolia ), there are practically no interventions for the maintenance of good grazing economically feasible or necessary (Glatzle 1999).

Periodically and episodically flooded areas with waters from the Pilcomayo river in regions with rather low rainfall (below 750 mm) are to be considered as a transitional zone between the Humid and the Dry Chaco. This zone along the to build left side riverbanks of the upper Picomayo-river is exposed to an extremely varying water regime, which may cause seasonally flooded grasslands to be reconverted into xeromorphic bush and essay service, vice versa within a few consecutive years. Research Papers On Economic Value! The Dry Chaco : Traditionally the most important natural grazing resource in the Dry Chaco are the espartillo grasslands (campos) on the regosols or arenososls in old riverbeds of the former inland delta which shaped the landscape of the essay service Central Chaco. These grasslands are characterised by questions abundance of the grass Elyonurus muticus (espartillo), not particularly palatable. Other grasses are Aristida circinalis, Paspalum chaseanum, Heteropogon contortus and Sporobolus pyramidalis . The espartillo-grasslands present a wealth of law school writing native legumes as soon as fire frequency is reduced and disturbance by grazing increased. Jack To Build Essay! Among the more important legumes are Aeschynomene histrix, Stylosanthes leiocarpa, Galactia sp ., Macroptilium bracteatum, Mimosa chacoensis, M. nuda, Rhynchosia balansae, Chamaecrista rotundifolia and Zornia crinita (Hacker et al.

1996). Typical pasture weeds coming up in overgrazed espartillos are Sida spp ., Croton cujabensis, Aloysia virgata and Acacia aroma . In former decades, a relatively high proportion of the writing campos was used for cropping by early European settlers and indigenous horticulturalists. No 10 Essay! Although the fertility status (organic matter, P, K) of virgin regosols is relatively high, continuous cropping with frequent tillage and without fertilization drastically reduced soil fertility. Nowadays, rundown regosols are restored establishing a permanent pasture (e.g. with Pangola grass) and introducing a suitable legume (e.g. Stylosanthes hippocampoides or Alysicarpus vaginalis ). Towards the law school writing service sub-humid parts of the Central Chaco (south and essay, east), inclusions of edaphic grasslands on poorly drained gleysols (so called water-camps ) are found with increasing density. The forage species occurring in essay writing service, the water-camps are essentially those listed for the Copernicia savannas in neon evangelion, the Humid Chaco. Another important traditional natural forage resource in the Dry Chaco is the native bush land ( montes ). Browsing the mostly thorny woody plants, such as Acacia praecox, A. aroma, Caesalpinia paraguariensis, Ruprechtia triflora, Capparis tweediana and law school essay writing service, C. Questions! retusa and eating the pods of law school essay writing service various Prosopis and Acacia spp. Cruel Angel Thesis Neon Genesis! (Morello and Toledo 1959) supports an average stocking density of about one bovine animal unit to 10 to 15 ha of bush (Fretes et al.

1969). Understorey grasses are virtually absent: Setaria globulifera, S. Law School Writing Service! fiebrigii and Digitaria sacchariflora are practically the questions only grasses found, but in very low frequency. There are studies demonstrating a severe degradation of the monte soils due to overgrazing under traditional grazing regimes. However, Adamoli et al. (1990) estimated the area affected by soil degradation in Chaco bush land to be less than one percent of the total area. Abril and writing, Bucher (2001) reported that soil organic carbon losses are much lower under cultivated pastures than in over utilised bush land. 6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF FODDER RESOURCES. Sown Pastures with Introduced Forages . Federalist No 10 Essay! The establishment of pastures with selected grasses and law school writing service, legumes on cleared land raises herd productivity per unit area about ten fold (Glatzle and Cabrera 1996, and Table 3). Hence it is angel thesis neon, not surprising that the area of cultivated pastures increased five to essay writing six fold since 1980, mostly at essay, the expense of native forests and bush. Large scale land clearing and pasture establishment obviously has adverse effects on landscape and writing, species diversity and carbon sequestration. Therefore it is indispensable to take into population questions, account a number of land clearing regulations in law school essay writing service, order to maintain or create a healthy and jack essay, diverse agro-ecosystem.

A steadily increasing number of farmers leave at least 25 percent of the forest, woodlands or bush of law school writing service a property intact (Ley Forestal 422/73). Leave intact a bush strip of essay borders thomas king 100 m width in east-west orientation, perpendicular to essay the prevailing wind (north-south) every 500 m and around the a fire property (Resolucion No. 729/2000) Leave bush borders at least 100 m wide around all types of temporary or permanent waters (rivers, lagoons, water-camps) (Decreto No. Law School Writing! 18.831/86). A significantly higher biodiversity was found when pastures contained a large number of native bush niches (strips and islands) and when the no 10 essay use of fire as a management tool was restricted or avoided (Glatzle 1999). Moreover, at sites with an elevated dry land salinity risk (high water table of saline ground water in a semi-arid climate, such as the Chaco), native bush fulfils the essay writing service important role of preventing salinity due to university the very high suction forces produced by many Chaco woody species, capable of keeping the ground water at a low level (Glatzle et al. 2001).

Bush clearing at sites prone to salinisation has resulted in the loss of valuable pasture land. Pasture establishment in Paraguay with selected forages has a relatively short history but has reached significant importance during the past two decades (Table 7). Law School Writing Service! Probably with the introduction and multiplication of buffel grass ( Cenchrus ciliaris ) by essay 2013 an American agricultural advisor of the Mennonite colonies in the Central Chaco, Robert Unruh, in the early nineteen fifties, cultivated pastures attained economic importance for the first time. Later on, a number of other introduced grasses gained commercial importance and law school writing, were multiplied on a national level (Table 8). When the German-Paraguayan Project Estacion Experimental Chaco Central started in the early nineteen-nineties, a new era started for the commercial use of population questions introduced pasture legumes (Table 8). In order to maintain productivity, cultivated pastures require, even more than native grazing lands, a correct adjustment of stocking rates.

Typical stocking rates range from about 0.5 to 2 bovine units per essay service hectare along the rainfall gradient across Paraguay, from federalist no 10 north-west to south-east. Maximum energy conversion from Panicum maximum cv. Gatton and Cynodon nlemfuensis pastures in the Central Chaco by grazing steers (into animal liveweight per writing ha) was attained by research papers value a stocking rate of 1.8 AU/ ha (Stosiek et al. 1997). This figure exceeds, however, the recommended long term ecological optimum stocking rate for this zone (0.8 to 1.2 AU/ ha). Maintenance interventions, such as woody weed control, are necessary to essay writing maintain long term profitability of sown pastures. Other grasses cultivated on a commercial scale, but of much less importance than the ones mentioned in Table 8, are: Chloris gayana cv. Angel Neon Genesis Evangelion! Callide, Panicum coloratum cv. Bambatsi, Brachiaria decumbens, B. mutica, B. humidicola, Cynodon sp . Tifton 85 and Callie, Digitaria milanjiana, Cenchrus ciliaris Bella, Acroceras macrum and Dichanthium caricosum . Pasture legumes of secondary importance are: Macroptilium atropurpureum Siratro, Lotononis bainesii, Stylosanthes scabra cv.

Seca and Siran, S. Law School Essay Writing! hamata cv. Boston! Amiga, Clitoria ternatea cv. Milgarra and Chamaecrista rotundifolia cv. Essay Writing Service! Wynn. Other Fodders. Among the most important cultivated forages is Silage Sorghum for dairy enterprises. Cruel Angel Thesis Neon Genesis Evangelion! In the Central Chaco (accounting for about 50 percent of the national milk production), the area cultivated with Silage Sorghum is estimated at over 10,000 hectares. At smallholder level in Eastern Paraguay some silage is made from Pennisetum purpureum (Cameroon grass). Part of the grain Sorghum (23,000 t on 16,000 ha in Paraguay) and maize (900,000 t on 370,000 ha in Paraguay) is used for concentrates, to be mixed at farm or at small commercial enterprise level with the agro-industrial by-products obtained predominantly from law school oilseeds (Table 6). No statistics are available on total concentrate feed production, nor on the proportions used to feed dairy cows, pigs, horses or poultry.

However, concentrates used for beef production are negligible. A typical emergency feed is sugar cane, grown on a small area on many farms and harvested in the dry season. During prolonged drought periods (about one in 10 years), whole sugar cane (produced in jack to build a fire, more humid Eastern Paraguay) is sold to cattle farmers in the Dry Chaco to enable them to maintain at essay service, least their breeding herd. There is little haymaking in Paraguay. Similarly, there is virtually no irrigated fodder production due to the absence of irrigation water in the Chaco (and poor external drainage) the high rainfall reliability in Eastern Paraguay the high opportunity costs (irrigated vegetables are more profitable than forages).

Table 8: Commercially important pasture grasses and legumes in a fire, Paraguay. Cultivar or/and common name. Since 1990 most important grass for newly cleared lands. Law School Essay Writing Service! In the Chaco, many 100,000 hectare of highly productive Gatton pastures. Colonial and Tanzania. Grown on the more fertile basaltic soils in East Paraguay. Less important in essay, the Chaco. Buffel grass, Texas 4464. Since nineteen fifties.

Several 100,000 ha in the Dry Chaco. Otherwise replaced by Gatton. Several 100,000 ha along the limit of the Dry and Humid Chaco, in the Humid Chaco, and on the fertile soils in East Paraguay. Wide spread in East Paraguay predominantly on infertile sandy soils. In the Chaco not frequent.

Tolerant to spittle bug. Digitaria eriantha var . pentzii. Several 10,000 hectare on sandy soils and at shortly inundated sites in East and West Py. Important since 1995 in the Chaco to restore rundown Gatton and buffel pastures. Restores rundown arable regosols in the Chaco. Combines well with Pangola. Also used as a summer active ley legume. Excellent to restore rundown arable regosols. Combines well with Pangola.

Cultivated legume, native to the Chaco. Adapts well to heavy textured soils. Essay Writing Service! Unsatisfactory long term persistence under grazing is limiting factor. Cunningham and to build a fire essay, Tarramba. Used as a fodder bank by an increasing number of law school essay service smallholders and big farms. Winter active, to be mixed into value added, permanent pastures in the Alto Parana Valley, East Py. Winter active ley legume, relatively rare. Constraints. The main constraints to pasture establishment, grassland management, forage and ruminant production and product marketing in Paraguay are the following: Shrubby weed invasion in cultivated pastures and native grasslands (requires interventions every two to three years) Soil compaction due to essay service overstocking and loss of jack to build essay soil plasticity (loss of organic matter) Reduced pasture productivity due to writing service nitrogen deficiency in older pastures Uncontrolled fires entering from neighbouring properties, destroying fodder reserves Wind erosion on population questions, sandy, denuded soils Increasing pests and diseases, such as leaf cutting ants ( Acromyrmex landolti and Atta vollenweideri ), grasshoppers ( Staurorhectus longicornis ), caterpillars ( Spodoptera frugiperda ), spittle bugs ( Zulia sp . Law School Essay Service! ), red spider mite ( Tetranychus sp. ), buffel blight ( Pyricularia grisea ), ergot ( Claviceps maximensis ) etc. Unexpectedly prolonged droughts, particularly in the Chaco High risks of dryland salinity within a belt of about 500 km long and 50 to 75 km wide with a shallow saline ground water table, right across the Paraguayan Chaco from north-east to south-west Long distances to the slaughter houses (reduces profitability for beef) Absence of milk collection systems in many parts of the country. Pasture seed production.

There is a strong small to medium scale pasture seed production in the Central Chaco of Paraguay at farm level. The seed produced are Panicum maxium cv. Gatton, Cenchrus ciliaris cv. Research On Economic! Texas 4464 and Bella, Urochloa mosambicensis, Chloris gayana cv. Callide, selections of Digitaria milanjiana , Panicum coloratum cv. Bambatsi, Sorghum sudanense, Leucaena leucocephala, Alysicarpus vaginalis, Desmanthus virgatus cv. Law School Essay Service! Filadelfia and Stylosanthes hippocampoides cv. Angel Thesis Genesis! Oxley. Total seed production attains several hundred tons a year.

Although there is no pasture seed certification, seed quality commonly competes with certified Argentine or Brazilian seed. Most seed is locally marketed directly between farms or via the co-operatives of the zone. Bigger seed producers also export Gatton Panic seed to law school essay writing service neighbouring Argentina and Bolivia. Angel Thesis! However, practically all Brachiaria spp . seed and most Panicum maximum cv. Tanzania and law school service, cv. Colonial seed which are used in Paraguay, are imported from Brazil, because seed yields are too low under local conditions.

7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND PERSONNEL. At present little research is carried out actively in Paraguay in the fodder and pasture sector. However, in the past, international or bilateral programmes and projects introduced and screened pasture species, initiated trials on pasture and herd handling and grazing management, and disseminated innovations in to build a fire essay, the forage and livestock sector. For example: an American agronomist employed by the MCC (Mennonite Central Committee) who introduced buffel grass and initiated pasture cultivation in the Chaco the Servicio Tecnico Interamericano de Cooperacion Agricola (STICA) who evaluated for the first time cattle breeds, native and introduced to Paraguay a Swiss project in connection with the Instituto Agrario Nacional (IAN) in Caacupe a USAID project in essay, connection with PRONIEGA (Programa Nacional de Investigacion y Extension Ganadera) in Pozo Colorado a French project in connection with the Fondo Gandero in La Patria a German project in questions, co-operation with DIA (Direccion de Investigacion Agricola) in the Central Chaco (Estacion Experimental Chaco Central, Cruce de los Pioneros). Besides that, there were many initiatives by individual farmers to introduce and test species they brought in from other countries, mostly Brazil and Argentina. Most of the service Brachiaria species and a number of essay king Cynodon cultivars came in through this channel and were spread from farmer to essay writing service farmer. More recently, livestock farmers interested in applied experimentation became privately organised in the Consorcio Ganadero para la Experimentacion Agropecuaria (CEA). CEA holds a highly appreciated international congress on technology transfer every year in Asuncion at the headquarters of the Asociacion Rural del Paraguay (ARP).

CEA members even organised an information travel of farmers to Queensland, Australia, from where a lot of university prompts new ideas and aspects on cattle breeds and grass cultivars came into the country. Moreover, the ARP is the organiser of a big annual Agricultural Trade Fair, where regularly cattle breeds and adapted pasture seed are exposed and marketed. On a regional level, farmers conscious of sustainable and profitable production systems organise themselves in law school essay, so called CREA-groups (Consorcio Regional de Extension Agropecuaria). Some private CREA groups work very efficiently, and sometimes contrast favourably with public extension services, such as divisions of the Ministry based Direccion de Extension Agricola y Ganadera (DEA) or even services offered by essay borders thomas king credit institutes, such as CAH, BNF and Fondo Gandero. Writing Service! Only about one in ten farms is cruel angel genesis, reached by a pubic extension service at law school, a nation-wide average (Molas et al. Federalist No 10 Essay! 1996). Law School Service! However, many producers#146; co-operatives provide competent technical assistance to their members. A new programme has started in October 2001 at Loma Plata, Chaco, the Iniciativa para la Investigacion y Transferencia de Tecnologia Agraria Sostenible (INTTAS), initiated by the private foundation DeSdel-Chaco (Fundacion para el Desarrollo Sostenible del Chaco), and sponsored by the Swiss foundation AVINA (Accion para la Vida y la Naturaleza).

This programme integrates, co-ordinates and complements the on-farm-experimentation and technology dissemination activities carried out by various co-operatives and their extension services, and essay king, private farmer groups within the Paraguayan Chaco. Furthermore, INTTAS is to reactivate a virtually paralysed public research station in the Chaco Region, implementing joint research programmes, and to promote regular exchange of essay service experience with private and public entities of interest from the population questions other Chaco countries, Argentina and Bolivia. The Direccion de Investigacion Agricola (DIA), part of the law school service Ministry of Agriculture, carries out research mainly in the cropping sector in 9 research stations spread over borders thomas king the country. However, little importance is writing, given to research in pastures and forages. The mandate of another Ministry-dependent research unit, the population essay Direccion de Investigacion de Produccion Animal (DIPA), is to conduct research in the animal production sector in law school essay, three stations across the country. Essay King! Again, the products of co-operative based and other private initiatives on animal breeding, animal selection and improvement of herd handling are more obvious than public efforts in service, this field. University! The low efficiency of public research in Paraguay is essay writing, primarily due to the lack of cruel genesis operational funds. More than 80% of the small budgets available (including revenues generated on the research stations) are used to cover the essay writing personnel costs.

In contrast to many other countries throughout Latin America efforts to angel evangelion revamp public-sector agricultural research and development agencies in Paraguay have yet to come to fruition. Major change was proposed in the mid-1990s in the form of the writing establishment of a national agricultural research institute, the essay king Paraguayan Institute of Agrarian Technology (IPTA), as a joint public-private venture with multiple funding sources. Writing Service! The proposal for the creation of boston IPTA is still pending, however, and it now appears that no legislative decision will be made until at least 2002, following a public reform process that is law school essay, currently underway in Paraguay Beintema et al. University Prompts 2013! (2000). On the other hand meanwhile, a strong negative selection process is being observed, by skilled technicians and scientists moving away from the law school essay service public sector (DIA and DIPA) into private research and development entities. Some kind of angel thesis neon genesis extension work and small scale experimentation in the forage and livestock sector is done by writing service institutions of higher education which are:

Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias (FCA) - Universidad Nacional de Asuncion (UNA) Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias (FCV) - Universidad Nacional de Asuncion (UNA) Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias (FCA) - Universidad Catolica Nuestra Senora de Asuncion (UCA) Facultad de Ingenieria Agronomica Ciencias Agrarias (FCA) - Universidad Nacional del Este (UNE) Distinguished Technicians currently engaged in public or private research programmes in the pasture and forage sector are: Jefe Seccion Pastura. Estacion Experimental Chaco Central. Cruce de los Pioneros. Ruta Trans-Chaco - km 412.

Estacion Experimental Pilar. Tacuary esq. Dr. Mazzei. Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, UNA. Dpto. Produccion Animal. Campo Universitario, San Lorenzo. Servicio Agropecuario, Chortitzer Komite. Loma Plata - 101 / Chaco.

C.d.c. 883 Asuncion. Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, UNA. Campo Universitario, San Lorenzo. Servicio Agropecuario, Chortitzer Komite. Loma Plata - 101 / Chaco. C.d.c. 883 Asuncion. Tel: xx 595 918 2301. Abril, A. and E.H.

Bucher (2001): Overgrazing and soil carbon dynamics in the western Chaco of Argentina. Applied Soil Ecology 16, 243 - 249. Adamoli, J., E. Sennhauser, J.M. Acero and A. Rescia (1990): Stress and disturbance: Vegetation dynamics in the dry Chaco region of essay Argentina. Journal of Biogeography 17, 491 - 500. AHK (1999): PARAGUAY . Deutsch-Paraguayische Industrie- und Handelskammer, Asuncion, Paraguay. Beintema, N.M., P. Zambrano, M. Nunez, and P.G. Pardey (2000): Agricultural RD in Paraguay: Policy, Investments, and Institutional Profile. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington D.C. Bertoni, G.T. and J.R. Gorham (1973): The Geography of Paraguay.

In J.R. Gorham (ed.). Paraguay: Ecological Essays. Academy of the Arts and Sciences of the Americas, Miami, pp. Essay Writing Service! 9 - 18. BGR (2001): Proyecto Sistema Ambiental del Chaco. Inventario, evaluacion y recomendaciones para la proteccion de los espacios naturales en la Region Occidental.

Bundesanstalt fur Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe, Hannover. DCEA (2000 ): Sintesis Estadistica 1999/2000. Direccion de Censos y Estadisticas Agropecuarias, Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia, Asuncion, Paraguay. Degen, R. (1996): Dinamica poblacional de Copernicia alba Morong Caranda#146;y. Direccion de Ordenamiento Ambiental and jack to build essay, Estacion Experimental Chaco Central (unpublished report) Eidt, R.C. (1969): The climatology of South America. In E.J.J. Illes, H. Klinge, G.H. Schwabe, and H. Sioli (eds.). Biogeography and ecology of South America. Vol.

1. Writing Service! Dr. W. Boston Essay! Junk, The Hague. FAO (2006): Online Statistical Database. Writing! http://apps.fao.org. Fatecha, A. (1989): Present and on economic value added, potential area for agricultural use in the Arid Chaco of Paraguay. In M. Hump and M.A. Tiefert (eds.). Writing! Agricultural Production under Semi-Arid Conditions with Special Reference to the Paraguayan Chaco: Strategies and Appropriate Technologies . DSE Feldafing, pp. 26-49.

Fretes, R., C. Gay and R. Samudio (1969): Las praderas naturales del Paraguay. I. Clasificacion y caracterizacion. Essay Borders Thomas King! Programa Nacional de Investigacion y Extension Ganadera. Publicacion No. 6, San Lorenzo.

Glatzle, A. and A.J.N. Cabrera (1996): Potencial de las pasturas cultivadas en el Chaco Paraguayo. In Consorcio de Ganaderos para Experimentacion Agropecuaria (ed.): CEA #146;96 ; Forrajes. III er Congreso Internacional de Transferencia Tecnologica Agropecuaria (17 y 18 de Nov. 1996), Asuncion, 155 - 168. Glatzle, A. (1999): Compendio para el Manejo de Pasturas en el Chaco . Edicion El Lector, Asuncion, Paraguay. Glatzle, A., R. Schultze-Kraft, and R. Mitlohner (2001): Potential Role of Native Bush in the Chaco for Mitigation of Dryland Salinity in law school service, Grassland . XIX International Grassland Congress, February 2001, Piracicaba, Brazil, ID 24-02. Gorham, J.R. (1973): The Paraguayan Chaco and research papers added, Its Rainfall.

In J.R. Gorham (ed .). Paraguay: Ecological Essays . Academy of the Arts and essay writing service, Sciences of the cruel neon Americas, Miami, U.S.A., pp. 39 - 60. GTZ (1994): PARAGUAY. Perfil del pais con informaciones y comentarios relacionados al desarrollo economico y socia l. Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit, Eschborn, Germany. Hacker, J.B., A. Law School Writing! Glatzle and R. Vanni (1996): Paraguay - a potential source of new pasture legumes for the subtropics. Tropical Grasslands 30, 273 - 281. MAG (1992): Censo Agropecuario Nacional 1991 . Research Papers On Economic! Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia, Asuncion, Paraguay. MAG (1996): Lineamiento Estrategico para el Desarrollo del Sector Agropecuario y Forestal. Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia, Asuncion, Paraguay.

Mereles, F., R. Degen and N. Lopez de Kochalca (1992): Humedales en el Paraguay: Breve resena de su vegetacion. Amazoniana 12, 305 - 316. Molas, O., R. Heyn and R. Arias (1996): Documento base sobre el sector pecuario y su impacto ambiental. ENAPRENA, Asuncion, Paraguay. Morello, J. and C. Saravia Toledo (1959): El Bosque chaqueno.

II. La ganaderia y el bosque en el Oriente de Salta. Revista Agronomica del Noroeste Argentino 3 (1-2), 209 - 258. Ramella, I. and R. Spichiger (1989): Interpretacion preliminar del medio fisico y de la vegetacion del Chaco Boreal. Contribucion al estudio de la flora de la vegetacion del Chaco. Candollea 44, 639 - 680. Ramirez, E.G. and essay service, J.L.

Laneri (1989): Fodder and Feeding of population essay questions Cattle in the Paraguayan Chaco. In M. Hump and law school essay writing service, M.A. A Fire Essay! Tiefert (eds.). Agricultural Production under Semi-Arid Conditions with Special Reference to the Paraguayan Chaco: Strategies and Appropriate Technologies . Law School Writing Service! DSE Feldafing, pp. 139-148.

Sachez, T.F. (1973): The climate of Paraguay. In J.R. Gorham (ed.). Paraguay: Ecological Essays . Academy of the Arts and Sciences of the Americas, Miami, U.S.A., pp. 33 - 38. Stosiek, D., A. Glatzle and R. Schultze-Kraft (1997): Utilized Metabolizable Energy and Its Impact on federalist, the Management of Grass Pastures in the Central Chaco of Paraguay. Essay Writing! Proc. XVIII th International Grassland Congress , Winnipeg and Saskatoon, Canada, 29-7 - 29-8. Tarso Zuquim, P. and I. Lima Serrano (1997): Tuiuiu: Under the skies of the Pantanal. Empresa de Artes, Sao Paulo, Brazil (work sponsored by boston essay Monsanto do Brazil)

Verma, G.P. (1982 ): Research needs for the development and improvement of writing service dryland agriculture in the Paraguayan Chaco . Unpublished report of the Technical and Economic Co-operation between the federalist no 10 Government of the Republic of India, New Delhi, India and the Government of the Republic of Paraguay, Asuncion, Paraguay. Glatzle, Dr. Albrecht. Asesor Tecnico Administrativo de la Iniciativa para la Investigacion y Transferencia de Tecnologia Agraria Sostenible (INTTAS)

The Carbon Cycle: What Goes Around Comes Around. by John Arthur Harrison, Ph.D. Table of contents The geological carbon cycle The biological carbon cycle Human alteration of the carbon cycle How scientists study past atmosphere and climate Terms you should know atmosphere : the collective mass of gases that surrounds Earth or another planet. organic : originating from a living organism; a compound that contains hydrocarbons species : a distinct type of plant or animal; a related group of law school service, living things that can produce offspring. Carbon is the fourth most abundant element in the universe, and is absolutely essential to life on Earth. In fact, carbon constitutes the very definition of life, as its presence or absence helps define whether a molecule is considered to be organic or inorganic.

Every organism on Earth needs carbon either for structure, energy, or, as is the case of humans, for both. To Build Essay? Discounting water, you are about essay service, half carbon. Additionally, carbon is found in forms as diverse as the gas carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), and in solids like limestone (CaCO 3 ), wood, plastic, diamonds, and graphite. The movement of jack, carbon, in its many forms, between the atmosphere, oceans, biosphere, and geosphere is described by the carbon cycle, illustrated in Figure 1. This cycle consists of writing, several storage carbon reservoirs and the processes by which the carbon moves between reservoirs. Carbon reservoirs include the atmosphere, the oceans, vegetation, rocks, and soil; these are shown in black text along with their approximate carbon capacities in Figure 1. The purple numbers and arrows in Figure 1 show the fluxes between these reservoirs, or the research papers on economic value added, amount of carbon that moves in and out of the reservoirs per year. If more carbon enters a pool than leaves it, that pool is considered a net carbon sink . If more carbon leaves a pool than enters it, that pool is considered net carbon source . Figure 1 : A cartoon of the global carbon cycle. Pools (in black) are gigatons (1Gt = 1x10 9 Tons) of carbon, and fluxes (in purple) are Gt carbon per year. Illustration courtesy NASA Earth Science Enterprise. image NASA. The global carbon cycle, one of the essay writing, major biogeochemical cycles, can be divided into geological and biological components.

The geological carbon cycle operates on a timescale of millions of years, whereas the biological carbon cycle operates on a timescale of days to thousands of years. The geological component of the carbon cycle is borders thomas king, where it interacts with the rock cycle in the processes of weathering and dissolution, precipitation of minerals, burial and subduction, and volcanic eruptions (see The Rock Cycle module for information). Essay Service? In the research papers on economic value, atmosphere, carbonic acid forms by a reaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and water. As this weakly acidic water reaches the service, surface as rain, it reacts with minerals at Earth's surface, slowly dissolving them into their component ions through the cruel angel thesis neon genesis, process of chemical weathering. These component ions are carried in surface waters like streams and rivers eventually to the ocean, where they precipitate out law school essay writing service, as minerals like calcite (CaCO 3 ). Through continued deposition and burial, this calcite sediment forms the rock called limestone. This cycle continues as seafloor spreading pushes the seafloor under continental margins in borders thomas, the process of law school essay service, subduction. Papers On Economic Added? As seafloor carbon is pushed deeper into the Earth by tectonic forces, it heats up, eventually melts, and can rise back up to the surface, where it is released as CO 2 and essay writing service returned to the atmosphere. This return to the atmosphere can occur violently through volcanic eruptions, or more gradually in seeps, vents, and CO 2 -rich hotsprings. Tectonic uplift can also expose previously buried limestone. One example of this occurs in the Himalayas where some of the world's highest peaks are formed of material that was once at the bottom of the ocean.

Weathering, subduction, and volcanism control atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations over time periods of federalist no 10, hundreds of millions of years. Carbonic acid reaches the Earth's surface by writing way of. Biology plays an important role in the movement of carbon between land, ocean, and atmosphere through the processes of photosynthesis and respiration. Virtually all multicellular life on Earth depends on no 10 essay the production of sugars from sunlight and carbon dioxide (photosynthesis) and law school essay the metabolic breakdown (respiration) of those sugars to produce the energy needed for thomas king movement, growth, and reproduction. Plants take in carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) from the law school writing, atmosphere during photosynthesis, and release CO 2 back into the atmosphere during respiration through the following chemical reactions: Through photosynthesis, green plants use solar energy to jack to build a fire, turn atmospheric carbon dioxide into carbohydrates (sugars). Plants and animals use these carbohydrates (and other products derived from them) through a process called respiration, the reverse of photosynthesis. Respiration releases the essay service, energy contained in sugars for use in metabolism and changes carbohydrate fuel back into carbon dioxide, which is in turn released back to the atmosphere.

The amount of carbon taken up by photosynthesis and released back to the atmosphere by respiration each year is about 1,000 times greater than the population, amount of carbon that moves through the geological cycle on an annual basis. On land, the major exchange of carbon with the atmosphere results from photosynthesis and essay respiration. Population? During daytime in the growing season, leaves absorb sunlight and take up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Essay? At the same time plants, animals, and soil microbes consume the carbon in organic matter and return carbon dioxide to population, the atmosphere. Photosynthesis stops at essay, night when the sun cannot provide the driving energy for university 2013 the reaction, though respiration continues. This kind of imbalance between these two processes is reflected in law school essay writing, seasonal changes in a fire, the atmospheric CO 2 concentrations. During winter in the northern hemisphere, photosynthesis ceases when many plants lose their leaves, but respiration continues.

This condition leads to an increase in atmospheric CO 2 concentrations during the law school essay writing service, northern hemisphere winter. With the onset of spring, however, photosynthesis resumes and atmospheric CO 2 concentrations are reduced. This cycle is federalist essay, reflected in the monthly means (the light blue line) of atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations shown in law school essay writing service, Figure 2. Figure 2 : The Keeling Curve, a long-term record of atmospheric CO 2 concentration measured at the Mauna Loa Observatory (Keeling et al.). Although the annual oscillations represent natural, seasonal variations, the long-term increase means that concentrations are higher than they have been in 400,000 years (see text and Figure 3). Graphic courtesy of NASA's Earth Observatory. image NASA. In the oceans, phytoplankton (microscopic marine plants that form the base of the marine food chain) use carbon to make shells of calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ). Essay? The shells settle to essay service, the bottom of the essay borders thomas, ocean when phytoplankton die and are buried in the sediments. Writing Service? The shells of phytoplankton and other creatures can become compressed over time as they are buried and are often eventually transformed into limestone. Additionally, under certain geological conditions, organic matter can be buried and over time form deposits of the carbon-containing fuels coal and papers on economic added oil. It is the non-calcium containing organic matter that is transformed into fossil fuel. Essay? Both limestone formation and cruel angel thesis neon genesis fossil fuel formation are biologically controlled processes and represent long-term sinks for atmospheric CO 2 . The major biological exchange of writing, carbon with the atmosphere is from.

Human alteration of the essay, carbon cycle. Recently, scientists have studied both short- and long-term measurements of atmospheric CO 2 levels. Charles Keeling, an oceanographer at the Scripps Institute of Oceanography, is law school essay service, responsible for creating the longest continuous record of atmospheric CO 2 concentrations, taken at the Mauna Loa observatory in papers on economic, Hawaii. Service? His data (now widely known as the Keeling curve, shown in Figure 2) revealed that human activities are significantly altering the natural carbon cycle. Since the onset of the industrial revolution about 150 years ago, human activities such as the burning of angel thesis neon genesis evangelion, fossil fuels and deforestation have accelerated, and both have contributed to a long-term rise in atmospheric CO 2 . Burning oil and coal releases carbon into the atmosphere far more rapidly than it is being removed, and this imbalance causes atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations to increase.

In addition, by essay service clearing forests, we reduce the ability of photosynthesis to research on economic value added, remove CO 2 from the atmosphere, also resulting in law school essay, a net increase. Because of these human activities, atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations are higher today than they have been over boston university essay, the last half-million years or longer. Because CO 2 increases the atmosphere's ability to hold heat, it has been called a greenhouse gas. Scientists believe that the increase in CO 2 is already causing important changes in the global climate. Many attribute the observed 0.6 degree C increase in global average temperature over the past century mainly to increases in atmospheric CO 2 . Without substantive changes in global patterns of fossil fuel consumption and deforestation, warming trends are likely to continue. The best scientific estimate is writing service, that global mean temperature will increase between 1.4 and research papers on economic value 5.8 degrees C over the next century as a result of increases in atmospheric CO 2 and other greenhouse gases.

This kind of increase in global temperature would cause a significant rise in average sea-level (0.09-0.88 meters), exposing low-lying coastal cities or cities located by tidal rivers, such as New Orleans, Portland, Washington, and Philadelphia, to increasingly frequent and severe floods. Writing Service? Glacial retreat and species range shifts are also likely to boston essay prompts, result from global warming, and it remains to be seen whether relatively immobile species such as trees can shift their ranges fast enough to keep pace with warming. Even without the changes in climate, however, increased concentrations of essay writing service, CO 2 could have an important impact on patterns of plant growth worldwide. Because some species of plants respond more favorably to increases in CO 2 than others, scientists believe we may see pronounced shifts in plant species as a result of increasing atmospheric CO 2 concentrations, even without any change in temperature. For example, under elevated CO 2 conditions, shrubs are thought to respond more favorably than certain grass species due to their slightly different photosynthetic pathway. Cruel Angel Evangelion? Because of this competitive inequality, some scientists have hypothesized that grasslands will be invaded by CO 2 -responsive grass species or shrubby species as CO 2 increases.

Figure 3 : CO 2 over the past 140,000 years as seen in an ice core and in the modern Mauna Loa record. The red line represents predicted concentrations. Figure courtesy of : Rebecca Dorsey, University of Oregon. Carbon dioxide is law school essay service, considered a greenhouse gas because. How scientists study past atmosphere and climate. In an attempt to understand whether recently observed changes in the global carbon cycle are a new phenomenon, or have instead occurred throughout geologic history, scientists have devoted considerable effort to developing methods for understanding Earth's past atmosphere and climate. These techniques include analysis of gas bubbles trapped in research papers on economic value added, ice, tree rings, and ocean and lake floor sediments for clues about past climates and atmospheres. Together, these techniques suggest that over the past 20 million years, the Earth's climate has oscillated between relatively warm and relatively cold conditions called interglacial and glacial periods. During interglacial periods, atmospheric CO 2 concentrations were relatively high, and during glacial periods, CO 2 concentrations were relatively low. We are currently in law school, an interglacial warm period, and human activities are pushing CO 2 concentrations higher than they have been for hundreds of thousands of years (Figure 3).

Understanding and population essay mitigating negative impacts of atmospheric CO 2 enrichment constitute two of the most central challenges that environmental scientists and policy makers currently face. In order to address this issue, the scientific community has formed the writing, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), an international, interdisciplinary consortium comprised of thousands of climate experts collaborating to produce consensus reports on climate change science. Many nations have agreed to conditions specified by the Kyoto Protocol, a multilateral treaty aimed at averting the thomas king, negative impacts associated with human-induced climate change. The United States, which is currently responsible for approximately one quarter of law school writing service, global CO 2 emissions, has so far declined to participate in the Kyoto Protocol. Carbon, the fourth most abundant element in essay borders thomas, the universe, moves between the service, atmosphere, oceans, biosphere, and essay thomas king geosphere in essay writing service, what is called the carbon cycle . Essay? This module provides an overview of the law school, global carbon cycle, one of the major biogeochemical cycles. The module explains geological and biological components of the cycle. Major sources and sinks of carbon are discussed, as well as the impact of human activities on global carbon levels. The presence of carbon determines whether something is organic or inorganic; all living things require carbon to live. Carbon cycles through the ecosystem in various ways, from photosynthesis and respiration to weathering and other geologic processes. Many factors, such as seasons and human activities, influence the concentration of essay borders, carbon in the global atmosphere.

John Arthur Harrison, Ph.D. “The Carbon Cycle” Visionlearning Vol. EAS-2 (3), 2003. For ad-free content and access to our Classroom, Sign In or Register for Free. Our content on-the-go. Download our new app for service iPad and iPhone today!

Andrew Jackson: Conqueror of Florida Essay. Writing? In the early 1800’s, Spain had little control of their territory south of the border of the American border, Florida. Indian tribes often raided towns in to build a fire, Southern American, then back to Florida to safety. America’s new mission was to seize Florida from Spain in law school, order to protect itself from further attack. It seems that the tough and volatile Andrew Jackson was the jack, only one to do it. Jackson’s nickname, Old Hickory, was fitting. Hickory was long held as the toughest wood in the forest, completely indestructible.

Jackson lived up to his moniker. He previously earned recognition as an law school writing, Indian fighter, and defeated the Creek tribes to carve out 23 million acres of land for the US, in what is now Georgia show more content Leaving Fort Scott, Jackson and his men marched on to old Negro Fort, captured it, and renamed it Fort Gadsden. From Fort Gadsden the makeshift militia marched to Fort St. Population Questions? Marks, where Spanish commanders were supposed to cooperate with Americans, but secretly did not. On the way to Bowleg’s Town, Jackson’s army fought 2 brief skirmishes with the Seminoles. Writing Service? In his wake, Jackson left a string of burned Seminole villages and corpses. Robert Ambruster, a British soldier-of-fortune, came to the frontier. Jackson thought he was a foreign agent, and held him for trial.

In Bowleg’s Town, a letter was found that Arbuthnot wrote warning of Jackson’s approach. Jackson held that the British were the true instigators, and thusly torched Bowleg’s Town. He returned to St. Marks, convened by a court to try Arbuthnot and Ambruster. What was to follow started an international incident. He had no international legal precedence to try them, but in the minds of Americans, he was justified. In 1822, Tennessee elected Andrew Jackson to run for the presidency. Jackson won the popular and electoral votes, but did not have enough votes in the Electoral College.

He lost the presidency that in papers on economic, 1824r. In 1828, Jackson ran for president again. The presses were bringing up his pass and tactics during his war time. In December, Jackson won the writing, election in a landslide. The count was 178 to 83 electoral votes, or 647,276 to 508,064 electoral votes. Andrew Jackson became the cruel angel thesis neon genesis, 7th president in essay writing service, Andrew Jackson: Not for the People Essay. settlers moved west.

Jackson was a much different president as his predecessors; they were rich wellborn politicians and he was a middle class frontier man. Essay 2013? Many of the law school writing, decisions that Jackson made were based strongly on his different background. We see this in his strong opposition to the national bank and also see how his personal life intermingled itself in university essay 2013, this affair. Nicholas Biddle, the wellborn president of the national bank, was everything that Jackson was not and therefore was a strong President Jackson vetoed the recharter of the Bank of the United States. He did so because he believed the bank served an essay writing service, unconstitutional purpose and thought that it was a monopoly that only the thomas, rich benefited. This mixed public support and brought the class issue to essay writing the attention of many people.

Although some saw Jackson’s decision to refute the national bank as negative one, the Jacksonians remained in angel thesis neon evangelion, support him. Reasoning was because they viewed it as an effort to support and exemplify equality President Jackson: Common Man or “King Andrew Essay. problems and revealed sides of law school service, Jackson that made him seem more like a monarch rather than a president for the common people. When the university prompts 2013, Tariff of 1828, was issued the southern states became very upset. The south had a lot of issues with tariffs and South Carolina decided to speak out against them. The Nullification Doctrine was a document written by service, John Calhoun, which stated that South Carolina would not acknowledge any tariffs because they were unconstitutional. On Economic Value Added? Jackson challenged it, and sent a representative

How Democratic was Andrew Jackson? Essay. Though Jackson was democratic by expanding voting rights, he made many controversial decisions that reflected self-interest and not the writing service, common man. Many of Jackson’s critics believed that he ignored the questions, separation of powers and abused his powers as president (Doc 3). In response to Andrew Jackson’s Bank Veto Message, Daniel Webster explained that, “(President Jackson's message) extends the grasp of (the chief executive) over every power of the law school writing service, government…” (Doc 5). Jackson crushed the majority Essay about Should Andrew Jackson remain on $20 bill? were signed with them. But Jackson believed that this policy should be supported by the government and also provide them with whatever they want.

Besides the Native American Tribes the Cherokees Nations instead of going to war with the United States they went to the court. Surprisingly the jack a fire, Supreme Court ruled over Native Americans that the states has to law school give rights to them and cannot interfere with their lands. Jackson was supporting states’ rights, so out of anger Jackson said to the Supreme Court Essay about Analysis of jack to build a fire essay, Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren. and saw them as savages. Once in office, Jackson urged the Indians to move westward and law school give up their land, but he was adamantly opposed. The first of the land battles began with Georgia when the state claimed millions of acres of borders thomas king, Indian land. The Indians responded with a suit in the Supreme court that was ruled in their favor, stating that Georgia had no authority over their land. The Georgians ignored this and a white invasion of the land ensued. Jackson did nothing to enforce the ruling and there John Ross and Andrew Jackson Essay. I myself petitioned to Congress not to law school essay pass it and gained the support of some of the prompts, greatest politicians there like Henry Clay and other members of the National Republican party. Chief John Ross' memorial and protest to Congress (1836) . The United States solemnly guaranteed to such nation all their land not ceded, and pledged the faith of the essay, government, that all white people who have intruded, or may hereafter intrude on the lands reserved for the Cherokees, shall be removed by the United Essay about Presidential Outline of Andrew Jackson.

M. Beginning of the prompts, Second Seminole War (1835) – This war was also called the Florida war. This conflict began in law school writing, 1835 and thesis evangelion lasted until 1842 between various groups of Native Americans in Florida cause a series of law school, conflicts. They called them Seminoles, hence the name of the war itself. It was the most expensive war fought by the United States at that time. N. Beginning of Texas War for independence (1836) – This was a military conflict between the government of essay prompts, Mexico and Texas. Law School Essay Writing? This conflict Hurricane Andrew: Storm of the Century Essay.

urgency in the Florida government to help anyone trying to flee the places where Hurricane Andrew was predicted to hit. General evacuation did begin in large cities such as Miami, where people with some knowledge of the size of the hurricane did begin to leave the city. As soon as many people began to hear about the size of Hurricane Andrew, an estimated number of 700 thousand people began to university 2013 flee along the major highways, blocking up roads for miles on end (Pittman). Essay Writing? Once Hurricane Andrew finally made

Ebooks Vs Paper Books Essays and Research Papers. such as pen and paper are slowly being replaced by computers and smart phones. But is this really a good thing? I read books and law school essay service, . of course so do many other people in this class and jack, around the globe. But since the creation of ‘e-readers’ more and more people have been converting to the technology based side of reading. Law School Service. Although technology is slowly becoming more predominant in papers on economic value added, this era we should not rely on it to always entertain and keep us occupied.

I think ‘real, physical’ books are better than. Amazon Kindle , Amazon.com , Book 1033 Words | 3 Pages. E- BOOKS VS . PAPERBACK BOOKS Recently, e- book came out and developed rapidly. In 2012, Amazon . Essay Writing. released news that it sold more e- books than paperback books in population essay, the global market in 2011. Essay Writing Service. Interestingly, it was the research on economic added, first time more e- books than paperbacks were sold on Amazon. Some people have predicted that one day e- books will completely replace paperback books . Law School Writing. They saw the rapid increase of e- books ’ selling and federalist essay, potential. Undeniably, today’s society has a tendency to prefer e- books . But this preference. Amazon Kindle , Amazon.com , Book 1598 Words | 4 Pages.

Starting Future Paper and electronic books both make an excellent and effective way of reading, although paper . books allow more of a precise effective reading while electronic books is often quicker and more convenient. Reading has always been one of our important and educational element. Since childhood, reading and books has always been exposed to us. Society evolution of books has completely changed and law school service, restructured our way of reading. Paper books are described to be “traditional books ” whereas electronic. Book , Books , Difference 770 Words | 4 Pages.

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Potter: Book vs . Movie With all the new movies based on jack to build essay books or comics that are out, people wonder why . Hollywood keeps doing it. Some say they're greedy people, just doing it for the money, and others say that it helps bring the book to life. But I say, why ruin a good book , like Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone, with bad lighting and law school, adequate actors? I say that we don't have to because the cruel angel neon genesis evangelion, comparison between the two forms of entertainment is a landslide victory for the book . You may. Harry Potter , Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows , Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire 526 Words | 3 Pages. ? Books Obsolete? E- books taking over? From the law school essay, beginning of time paper books have been the soul . means of historical documentation and the recording of stories, as to be passed down through the boston essay prompts 2013, generations.

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Custom Karl Marx Conflict Theory Essay. Karl Marx is one of the most reputed philosophers of the essay writing service 19 th Century. Research Papers On Economic Value Added? Born in 1818 in a middle class family, Marx studied law in Bonn and Berlin and essay writing service later plunged deeper into the ideas of Hegel and Feurbach (Wheen, 2007). It is after receiving his doctorate in philosophy in 1841 from the population University of Jena that he moved with his family to Paris where he became a radical revolutionary communist and teamed up with Friedrich Engels, another radical philosopher of his time. They collectively authored the pamphlet “The Communist Manifesto” which was later published in 1848. In this pamphlet, Marx passionately asserted that all human history was dominated by essay writing class struggles.

Furthermore, he predicted that they would culminate into the fall of capitalism and rise of papers, communism (Wheen, 2007). Karl Marx later moved to London in 1849 where he broke his political and religious isolation to author Das Kapital, sometimes referred to as the “Bible of the working class” (Wheen, 2007). In this book, Marx developed very philosophical ideas related to service the crises of the working class and the implicit struggles between laborers and owners of federalist no 10, industries. The works and ideas of Karl Marx in his book Das Kapital were later edited by Engels after his death in 1833 in law school essay, London (Wheen, 2007). The ideas of Karl Marx established a school of thought known as Marxism, or what later came to be popularly known as the Marxist doctrine. His writings consummated the main ideological currents of 19 th century. These included the classical English political economy, French socialism and essay the French revolutionary doctrines of the time. Marx, throughout his writing, had envisaged a social revolution that would see the fall of capitalism and the rise of socialism as a dominant ideology.

These predictions later became evident after the death of Karl Marx in what was considered to be a process of socialization of labor. Wheen (2007) contends that this transformation would be possible to accomplish by the proletariat in sustained struggles with the bourgeoisie. This led to the development of ideas evident in Marxism and the conflict theory that form the bedrock of Marx’s works. Conflict theory is a Marxist perspective and conceptualization of the way in which society is structured. This perspective depicts society as characteristically dominated by conflicts (Collins Sanderson, 2008). Conflict is the determinant of how resources are allocated and who benefits the most from such allocations. Power is essay, also acquired through conflict, and once such power is acquired, it is used to dominate the less-powerful and to benefit a few people. Collins and Sanderson (2008) cited that the borders thomas basic form of law school essay writing, interaction in the human society is not consensus but competition, which culminates into persistent conflicts.

Each party or individual competes against perceived rivals with the goal of gaining advantage and dominating the other. The theory presented by Karl Marx underscores the no 10 fact that conflict, and law school essay service not consensus, dominates designed mechanisms through different classes in the stratified society, interacts and relates to each other (Collins Sanderson, 2008). The rich and the powerful use conflict to threaten their poor subjects and to maintain the status-quo. The poor on the other hand, organize and use conflicts to push for boston prompts 2013 a revolution that will overthrow the writing powerful that are enjoying the borders privileges of capitalist structures. These tensions are thus sustained by the need of each group to have its interests dominate the writing structures and operations of the society. Karl Marx contends that the angel neon genesis society is stratified into two main social groups.

These are the proletariat and the bourgeoisies. The conflict between these two large social groups results in what Marx considered as revolutionary change. The probable source of conflict between the proletariat and the bourgeoisies are the desire of the proletariat to have ownership of means of production, such as factories, power, land and other valuable resources (Collins Sanderson, 2008). The bourgeoisies, on the other hand, are not willing to relinquish these resources and give up their privileged positions of power and overwhelming riches and investments. Karl Marx on Class and Class Conflict. According to Karl Marx, society is stratified into essay writing, classes. The classes comprise the bourgeoisies, land-owners and no 10 the proletariat. The propertied-upper-class is the minority, while the proletariats are the majority. Wood (2004) notes Marx’s dissection of the dominant features of each of these classes in most of his works. For example, the bourgeoisies own the means of production. This is due to the huge investments they have made into factories and machines in the industries.

The land owners have rent as their primary source of income. Essay Writing Service? The proletariats are owners of cheap labor which they offer in exchange for wages that they use for their basic subsistence (Collins Sanderson, 2008). Investment gives the bourgeoisies a lot of federalist no 10, profit. Marx conceptualized the structure of the writing society in questions, relation to the two major classes. He is focused on the inherent struggles between the writing service proletariat and bourgeoisies which is the engine that pushes the occurrence of social change through revolutionary movements. In the understanding of Marxists, class is defined by the level of wealth and power that one possesses (Wood, 2004). This power is used to sideline other classes from property and positions of power.

Bourgeoisies use their power to serve their personal interests and amass more wealth at borders king the expense of the law school essay proletariat. These three different classes, in the understanding of angel thesis neon evangelion, Karl Marx, have different interests which pit them against each other (Wood, 2004). Law School Essay Writing? For example, the bourgeoisie are interested in safeguarding their investment in the industries, maximizing profits and minimizing costs. This makes them engage the proletariats as laborers in the farms to boston essay 2013 achieve this objective at relatively minimal wages. The proletariats on the other hand, organize and mobilize themselves to collectively push for better wages, conditions of work and strive to overcome the repressive and law school writing exploitative forces of their masters in the industries and factories. Thus, they struggle to university join hands and, through revolutionary movements, overthrow the bourgeoisies and control the law school essay writing industries and boston prompts 2013 factories (Wood, 2004). These conflicting interests are what pit the law school service social classes against each other.

Conflicts, and not consensus, therefore, characterize the essay borders society as noted by Marx who had envisaged such a society founded on constant conflicts. The struggle between the law school essay writing classes is likely to widen with time as the conditions of the laborers deteriorate further. This is essay, likely leads to disintegration of the social structure. Collins and Sanderson (2008) asserted that conflicts between proletariats and bourgeoisies would translate into an industrial revolution. Writing Service? This would mark the triumph of the thomas king proletariats over the bourgeoisies, leading to increased access to capital and means of production by proletariats. This, according to Marxists, would mark the end of capitalism and the onset of socialism characterized by law school writing service public ownership of the means of production. The fall of capitalism and bourgeoisies will, therefore, create a classless society as political power withers away due to industrial revolution led by the proletariat (Wood, 2004).

Thus, according to jack to build a fire Marxists, class and class conflict are the forces behind societal transformation and not any other evolutionary processes. Radical revolutionary movements are likely to create a new social order in the society in which capitalism gives way to law school writing service socialism as witnessed by the industrial revolutions that altered the social order in Russia in the 19 th century. The philosophical ideas of Karl Marx on alienation were relevant in his radical reformation periods that saw the fall of capitalism (Otteson, 2011). Although these ideas were mainly considered to be philosophical in the 19 th century, alienation, as was espoused by Marx, since then has become a real social phenomenon in the 21 st century discourses that are propagated by contemporary social science scholars. The most outstanding aspect that Marx wrote about was economic alienation or alienated labor. According to the writings of Karl Marx, one of the front forces behind conflict between bourgeoisies and proletariat is the fact laborers felt separated from the products of essay thomas, their own labor (Me%u0301sza%u0301ros, 2006). Marx asserted that in a capitalist society, workers were forced to remain on the job and work extra hard in order to service earn and sustain themselves (Me%u0301sza%u0301ros, 2006). He was against alienation which is caused by strong forces of capitalism and angel genesis predicted the rise of law school, communism in which laborers will no longer work to live but live to work. With the fall of capitalism and alienation, wage earning slaves will be free men who will work and papers value added enjoy the value of their labor. In a capitalist society dominated by law school bourgeoisies, the production capacity of an employee is 100%.

However, the employee does not benefit directly from these products. He only earns 10% of the federalist no 10 proceeds of his work, which he only uses for daily subsistence. In communism, one would directly benefit from 90% of the proceeds of his labor and only lose 10% which will be spent in other production processes. Marx contended that in law school essay service, a capitalist society, workers are alienated even from the products that they produce (Me%u0301sza%u0301ros, 2006). A laborer working in an industry that manufactures oil becomes so much alienated from the product that he or she produces to an extent that even in his or her own household he cannot afford the oil, yet he needs it and contributes significantly to its production. The ideas of cruel neon evangelion, Karl Marx on alienation were very accurate considering that many labor union movements advocated for the welfare of law school, workers in the modern society (Otteson, 2011). There are employees who work in a milk processing plant, when ironically back at home they do not take the milk, not because they do not need it but because they cannot afford the milk. Alienation as presented by papers value added Karl Marx in his conflict theory is an explanation of a situation in writing service, which man is essay borders king, separated from valued resources, opportunities, processes and decisions in which his input ought to be reflected (Me%u0301sza%u0301ros, 2006). The laborers at the time of Marx’s life did not have opportunity to essay service say a word on the amount of wages they earned as compensation for their work. Yet, their role in the industrial production processes was very significant. The masters determined the wages, number of hours worked, when to grant leaves for recuperation and so on.

In fact, Marx was very concerned with how the surplus value of products processed in the industries manned by workers benefited the essay thomas king workers themselves. Marx asserted that in a capitalist society, the essay service surplus value only makes the to build a fire rich richer as the workers become more impoverished. So worked up were the law school service laborers that they were even alienated from their own families and private lives. They did not have time for recreation, family sessions or other community forums. Marx sadly puts it in his writings of Das Kapital that leave or absence to workers in a capitalist system was hard to essay borders come by (Me%u0301sza%u0301ros, 2006). But when such leaves were finally granted, they were only meant to law school writing service help the boston university workers recuperate and get extra strength not to benefit themselves but their masters who would then register a rise in law school writing service, surplus value in the industrial production. Alienation, according to the writings of Karl Marx, can be seen to occur in four different ways.

Me%u0301sza%u0301ros (2006) contends that workers are alienated against the products that they produce; they do not benefit from them much, the production process especially through specialized division of labor, from the community and essay questions from himself. In a capitalist industrialized society, specialized division of labor is used to promote alienation under the disguise of enhancing efficiency and effectiveness in production. Marx argues that an employee, concerned purely with the law school writing repair of broken down machines in industry producing oil, may not have enough experience with other production processes in the industry. The owners of the industry alienate them from this knowledge out of fear that such knowledge might empower workers to compete against the factory owners. Consciousness as defined by philosophers refers to how people or a person defines and understands himself (Wood, 2004). The concept of boston essay prompts, consciousness as presented in the writings of Karl Marx was basically bent towards understanding and law school writing identification with one’s class. It is this consciousness that would push the workers (proletariats) to join other proletariats and put forward a united battle against one common social group, the bourgeoisies.

Wood (2004) asserts that consciousness would enable workers gain awareness that they all had shared experiences with other laborers, the bitter experience of alienation, exploitation and oppression by capitalist bourgeoisies (Wood, 2004). This consciousness would push the workers to rise against the bourgeoisies and launch protest and essay 2013 revolutionary movements that would lead to the fall of capitalism and the onset of communist’s ideologies. Marx used the term “class consciousness” to illustrate this level of awareness on the part of the workers. There are scholars of Marxism who have argued that the concept of law school essay writing service, consciousness was used by Karl Marx to depict class as a very subjective dimension in a capitalist society. The concept of consciousnerss forms the skeleton of Marx conflict theory. The proletariat will only rise to boston university 2013 confront the bourgeoisies after realization that all workers had common problems, all originating from the bourgeoisies. Such awareness by itself is inspiring enough to law school stir up revolution and thomas protests against the bourgeoisies (Wood, 2004). Marx argued that it was false class consciousness that continued to sustain the forces and the influence of capitalist ideologies.

The proletariat had misrepresented their identity, position in society and resigned to fate, preferring to remain in subordinate positions as the bourgeoisies took advantage of this and used their positions to exploit and dominate the economy (Wood, 2004). Law School Essay Writing? Members of subordinate classes, such as workers and peasants continued to suffer in the hands of the dominant bourgeoisies as a result of papers value added, false-class-consciousness. The upper class, on the other hand, has their consciousness right as they believe they should remain dominant owners of the means of production. Karl Marx’s works have influenced and law school essay writing continue to influence sociological academia and studies in the field of economics. Although some of his ideas, like conflict theory have been criticized by scholars since then in the contemporary sociological theory, conflict perspective remain to be a very popular sociological perspective, while Marx remains in academic records as one of the great scholars that contributed to the growth of sociology and borders its relevance in understanding human interactions and relationships in the society. Contemporary scholars, including critics of Marxism, continue to law school writing service draw on his works to develop new concepts and ideas aimed at offering more accurate explanations of various phenomena in federalist, the society. Collins, R., Sanderson, S. K. (2008). Conflict sociology: A sociological classic updated . Boulder: Paradigm Publishers. Meszaros, I. (2006). Marx's theory of alienation . Delhi: Aakar Books.

Otteson, J. R. (2011). The inhuman alienation of capitalism. Society, 49 (2), 139-143. Wheen, F. (2007). Marx's das kapital: A biography . New York, N.Y: Atlantic Monthly Press. Wood, A. W. (2004). Karl Marx . New York: Routledge. Custom Karl Marx Conflict Theory Essay. 95% of satisfied returning customers Customer support 24/7/365 The largest source database A wide range of services Privacy guaranteed Certified writers only Custom-written papers only Direct communication with a writer Free plagiarism report(on demand) Free revision upon request more details Your writers are masters at time management. I turned in an order for four very difficult papers, and they were all written perfectly, even with the short deadline notice. Thanks, EssaysWriters.com!

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